UCSB 


//' 


THE 


PRACTICAL  SHEPHERD 


A  COMPLETE    TREATISE   ON   THE 


BREEDING,  MANAGEMENT  AND  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 


HENRY  S.  RANDALL,  LL.  D., 


inEEP    HUSBANDRY     IN     THE     SOUTH,"     "TINE-WOOL 
SHEEP    HUSBANDBY,"    ETC.,     ETC. 


WITH     rL3L,TJSTK,A.TIONS. 


SIXTH    EDITION. 


ROCHESTER,  N.  Y.: 

D.   D.   T.   MOORE,   UNION   BUILDINGS. 

PHILADELPHIA:    J.   B.   LIPPESTCOTT  &  CO. 

1863. 


ft  ITT 


IT  <m ; 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1863,  by 

D.   D.   T.   MOORE, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Northern  District  of  New  York. 


ROCHESTER,  N.  T.: 

8TKBEOTYPED  BY  JAMBS  LENNOX, 
62  BUFFALO  STREET. 


INTRODUCTION. 


AN  attempt  has  been  made  in  the  following  pages  to  give  an 
impartial  history  of  all  the  most  valuable  varieties  and  families  or  sheep 
in  the  United  States,— to  explain  the  principles  of  breeding  on  which 
their  improvement  rests,  and  to  describe  their  proper  treatment 
in  health  and  sickness,  under  the  different  climatic  and  other  circum- 
stances to  which  they  are  necessarily  subjected  in  a  country  as 
extensive  as  our  own. 

Many  of  the  topics  of  this  work  have  been  ably  discussed,  and  are 
constantly  being  ably  discussed  in  our  Agricultural  periodicals ;  but  it 
is  now  eighteen  years  since  the  publication  of  the  last  elaborate 
American  work  which  treats  on  them  connectedly  and  with  any 
considerable  degree  of  fullness.  It  is  fifteen  years  since  the  appearance 
of  my  own  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,  which  was  confined  to  a 
portion  of  these  subjects,  and,  in  many  instances,  as  the  title  would 
imply,  to  views  and  statements  intended  for  local  rather  than  general 
information. 

In  the  mean  tune,  a  great  change  —  almost  an  entire  revolution  — 
has  taken  place  in  the  character  of  American  sheep,  and  in  the  systems 
of  American  sheep  husbandry.  The  fine  -  wool  families  which  existed 
here  in  1845  have,  under  a  train  of  circumstances  which  will  be  found 
recorded  in  this  volume,  mostly  passed  away;  and  they  have  been 
succeeded  by  a  new  family,  developed  in  our  own  country,  which  calls 
for  essentially  different  standards  of  breeding  and  modes  of  practical 
treatment. 

Our  improved  English,  or,  as  they  are  often  termed,  mutton  breeds 
of  sheep,  instead  of  being  now  confined  to  a  few  small,  scattering 
flocks,  have  spread  into  every  portion  of  our  country,  represent  a  large 
amount  of  agricultural  capital,  and  throughout  regions  of  considerable 
extent  are  more  profitable  than  sheep  kept  specially  for  wool  growing 
purposes.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  families  of  them  were  wholly 
unknown  in  this  country — indeed,  had  scarcely  been  brought  into 
general  notice  in  England  —  fifteen  years  ago.  And,  finally,  our 
advanced  agricultural  condition  has  created  a  new  set  of  agricultural 
circumstances  and  interests  which  materially  affect,  and,  in  turn,  are 
materially  affected  by,  sheep  husbandry,  —  so  that  their  reciprocal 
relations  must  be  understood  to  lead  to  the  highest  measure  of  success 
in  almost  any  department  of  farming. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  a  new  work  on  American  Sheep  Husbandry 
brought  clown  to  the  requirements  of  the  present  day  — that  is, 


jv  INTEODFCTION. 

embodying  the  results  of  the  experience  which  sheep  breeders  have 
obtained  down  to  the  present  time  — is  obviously  called  for.  And  the 
need  is  more  urgent  at  a  period  when  a  great  existing  war  has  so 
raised  the  price  of  wool  that  multitudes  are  embarking  in  its  production 
who  have  comparatively  little  knowledge  of  sheep  or  their  management. 
This  work  is  intended  to  be  minute  and  explicit  enough  in  regard  to 
every  detail  of  that  management  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  merest 
beginner. 

I  would  gladly  have  seen  this  labor  performed  by  another.  But, 
during  the  past  year,  repeated  public  and  private  intimations  have 
continued  to  reach  me  from  breeders,  agricultural  editors,  etc.,  scattered 
through  various  States  of  this  Union,  and  representing  personal  interests 
the  most  diversified  and  even  contrary,  that  my  preparation  of  such 
a  work  was  considered  desirable.  In  complying  with  the  wishes  thus 
expressed,  I  can  only  bring  to  my  task  experience,  and  a  disposition 
to  state  facts  with  accuracy  and  candor.  As  has  been  remarked  in 
another  portion  of  this  volume,  I  have  owned  and  been  familiar  with 
flocks  of  sheep  from  my  infancy,  and  have  had  the  direct  and  practical 
charge  and  management  of  them,  in  considerable  numbers,  for  a  period 
exceeding  thirty  years.  During  that  time  I  have  bred  all  the  varieties 
of  the  Merino  which  have  been  introduced  into  our  country,  and 
several  of  the  leading  families  of  English  sheep.  But  not  having  bred 
the  latter  extensively,  or  very  recently,  I  have  thought  it  would  be 
more  satisfactory,  in  most  instances,  to  employ  descriptions  of  them 
drawn  from  standard  English  writers,  and  from  their  actual  breeders 
in  the  United  States.  Had  I  contemplated  writing  this  work  long 
enough  in  advance  to  make  a  collection  of  materials  specially  intended 
for  it,  I  should  also  have  taken  pleasure  in  drawing  out  the  opinions 
of  the  eminent  and  highly  successful  breeders  of  English  sheep  in  the 
Canadas.  My  inquiries  might  even  have  extended  to  England.  But 
the  "Practical  Shepherd"  was  commenced  as  soon  as  the  writing  of 
it  was  determined  on,  and  the  earlier  Chapters,  treating  on  Breeds, 
were  hi  print  before  I  could  have  sought  in  an  appropriate  mode 
and  obtained  the  desired  information  from  foreign  lands. 

When  called  upon  to  give  the  opinions  of  others  in  regard 
to  points  with  which  I  am  unacquainted,  or  less  acquainted,  I  have 
chosen  generally  to  quote  their  language,  —  and  in  all  instances 
to  mention  their  names.  Disguised  compilation  is  one  of  the  pettiest 
forms  of  literary  theft;  and  it  deprives  the  reader  of  his  fair  and 
proper  privilege  of  deciding  for  himself  on  the  competence  of  the 
authority  to  which  he  is  called  upon  to  give  credit.  On  various 
subjects,  and  more  especially  on  the  subject  of  those  ovine  diseases 
which  are  as  yet  unknown  in  the  United  States,  these  pages  will  be 
found  enriched  with  the  descriptions  and  the  opinions  of  eminent 
foreign  agricultural  writers  and  veterinarians.  For  the  invaluable 
privilege  of  thus  availing  myself  of  their  knowledge,  I,  as  well  as  the 
readers  of  this  volume,  owe  them  sincere  acknowledgements. 

I  was  at  some  loss  whether  or  not  it  would  be  expedient  for  me 
to  give  descriptions  of  an  extended  list  of  diseases  and  remedies,  the 
lormer  of  which  have  not  appeared,  or,  at  least,  have  not  been 
recognized  in  our  country.  But  judging  from  their  increase  thus  far 
and  judging  from  their  analogies  derivable  from  the  his 


-,    ~,  ~  — o . — ~  from  the  history  of  diseases 

in  other  domestic  animate,  and  in  man,  we  have  strong  reasons  to 


INTRODUCTION.  T 

apprehend  that  as  pur  country  grows  older,  and  our  systems  of 
husbandry  more  artificial,  the  same  causes  will  be  generated  or 
developed  here  which  now  produce  many  of  the  diseases  of  Europe. 
It  is  already  found,  for  example,  that  as  we  treat  our  English  sheep 
according  to  English  modes,  maladies  long  known  in  England,  but 
not  previously  known  here,  and  not  yet  known  among  our  other 
breeds  of  sheep,  make  their  appearance  among  them.  And  some  of 
the  fellest  oviue  maladies  of  Europe  are  liable,  at  any  time,  to  be 
introduced  here  by  contagion.  On  the  whole,  I  judged  that  it  would 
be  erring,  if  at  all,  on  the  safer  side,  to  give  descriptions  drawn  from 
the  best  existing  sources  of  veterinary  information  of  the  symptoms 
and  treatment  of  all  the  maladies  unknown  in  this  country  wirier, 
have  thus  far  been  recognized  and  classified  hi  Europe. 

I  have  quoted  somewhat  freely  from  my  own  previous  works  on 
Sheep.  I  could  discover  no  objection  to  this,  where  my  opinions 
remain  unchanged ;  and  where  they  are  changed,  omissions  and,  in  a 
few  cases,  slight  alterations  have  been  made  to  conform  the  quoted 
statements  to  them.  If  occasional  discrepancies  are  discoverable 
between  my  present  and  former  views,  I  have  only  to  say,  in  explana- 
tion, that  further  experience  or  further  reflection  has  led  me  to  change 
my  conclusions. 

A  general  history  and  description  of  all  the  breeds  of  sheep  have 
not  been  attempted  in  this  volume.  Those  desirous  of  such  information 
are  referred  to  Mr.  Youatt's  Work  on  Sheep.  This  unwearied 
investigator  and  copious  writer  exhausted  this  field  of  research  —  and 
he  really  left  nothing,  in  what  may  be  termed  the  literature  of  Sheep 
Husbandry,  to  be  performed  by  another.  Those  who  have  followed 
him  in  the  same  field,  have  only  repeated  him ;  and  these  compilers 
have  generally  been  as  destitute  of  his  grace  as  of  his  erudition. 

I  have  alluded  to  all  the  distinct  breeds  of  sheep  which  have,  so 
far  as  my  knowledge  extends,  been  introduced  into  the  United  States, 
but  I  have  particularly  described  only  those  leading  and  valuable  ones 
which  now  employ  the  attention  of  enlightened  agriculturists.  And 
even  in  respect  to  these,  no  historic  investigations  have  been  indulged 
in  which  do  not  appear  ti&  me  to  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  modes 
and  means  of  their  preservation  or  improvement.  The  province  of 
this  work  embraces  purely  practical  concerns,  and  history  and 
disquisition  are  pertinent  only  so  far  as  they  throw  a  direct  and 
instructive  light  on  those  concerns. 

One  of  the  greatest  and  most  insuperable  difficulties  which  I 
have  experienced  in  the  prosecution  of  my  labors  arises  from  the 
want  of  an  established  and  systematic  nomenclature  to  express  the 
various  divisions  of  species.  The  designations,  species,  race,  kind, 
stock,  breed,  variety,  family,  etc.,  have  been  applied  almost  indiscrimi- 
nately to  the  same  divisions,  as  if  the  words  were  understood  to  be 
synonymous.  Even  Mr.  Youatt  falls  into  this  loose  and  careless  use 
of  language.  But  unfortunately  a  confusion  of  terms  can  not  but 

Eroduce  a  corresponding  confusion  of  ideas,  on  a  subject  not  without 
itricacy,  and  in   reference  to  distinctions  or  lines   of  demarkation 
which  are  frequently  faint,  and  nearly  always  irregular  and  abounding 
in  exceptions.    The  breeder  who  aspires  to  be  an  improver,  ought  to 
have  clear  ideas  on  this  subject.     Called  upon  early  in  the  progress 


yj  INTRODUCTION. 

of  this  work,  and  without  much  previous  consideration  to  devise  a 
uniform  mode  of  classification  in  the  premises,  I  adopted  and  have 
made  use  of  the  following: 

The  term  breed  is  applied  to  those  extensive  and  permanent  groups 
of  sheep  which  are  believed  to  have.  had,  respectively,  a  common  origin 
—  which  exhibit  certain  common  leading  characteristics  —  and  which 
transmit  those  characteristics  with  uniformity  to  their  progeny.  Ex- 
amples of  Breeds,  are  the  Merino  of  Spain,  including  its  pure  blood 
descendants,  wherever  found  ;  the  Fat  -  Humped  Sheep  of  Asia,  the 
Long-Wooled  Sheep  of  England,  and  the  Short  -Wooled  Sheep  of 
England.  The  term  Variety  is  applied  to  different  national  branches 
of  the  same  breed,  such  as  the  Saxon,  French  and  American  varieties 
of  the  parent  Spanish  Merino.  The  term  Family  is  used  to  designate 
those  branches  of  a  breed  or  variety  found  in  the  same  country,  which 
exhibit  permanent,  but  ordinarily  lesser  differences  than  varieties. 
Thus  the  different  kinds  of  Downs  and  the  Rylands  are  families  of 
the  English  Short  -  Wooled  sheep  ;  the  Cotswolds  and  the  Liecesters 
are  families  of  the  English  Long  -Wooled  sheep  ;  the  Infantados  and 
Paulars  are  families  of  both  the  Spanish  and  American  Merinos. 
The  term  sub-  family  is  occasionally  used  to  designate  a  minor  group, 
bearing  about  the  same  relation  to  a  family  that  a  family  does  to  a 
variety.  No  satisfactory  term  was  found  to  characterize  the  smallest 
and  initial  group  of  all,  —  those  closely  related  animals,  to  which, 
among  human  beings,  we  apply  the  designation  of  a  family,  when  we 
use  that  word  in  its  most  restricted  sense.  Perhaps  I  have  sometimes, 
awkwardly  enough,  spoken  of  them  as  animals  of  the  same  individual 
blood,  or  as  possessing  the  same  strain  of  individual  blood. 

The  system  of  classification  above  described,  answers  very  well 
when  applied  to  the  Merino.  This  breed  exhibits  all  the  enumerated 
classes  in  permanent,  distinct  forms,  each  to  a  certain  extent  isolated 
from  the  others  by  separate  breeding,  for  a  considerable  period,  and 
totally  isolated  from  all  other  and  outside  groups  of  sheep  by  perfect 
purity  of  blood.  But  this  classification  is  wholly  unsatisfactory  when 
applied  to  the  British  breeds  of  sheep.  I  will  not  consume  space  to 
explain  a  fact,  the  causes  of  which  will  be  so  obvious  to  the  observing 
reader. 

I  return  my  sincere  thanks  to  the  following  gentlemen  for  valuable 
aid  in  collecting  materials  for  this  work—  none  the  less  valuable 
because,  in  many  instances,  they  were  contributed  in  a  form  which 
required  no  special  mention  in  my  pages.  I  arrange  the  names 
alphabetically  to  avoid  making  a  distinction  where,  in  most  cases, 
none  exists:  —  A.  B.  Allen,  Lewis  F.  Allen,  George  Campbell,  N.  L. 
Chaffee,  Edmund  Clapp,  Prosper  Elithorp,  George  Geddes,  James 
Gedcles,  W.  F.  Greer,  James  S.  Grennell,  Edwin  Hammond,  Benjamin 
P.  Johnson,  Geo.  Liverruore,  R.  A.  Loveland,  Daniel  Needham,  Theo- 
dore C.  Peters,  Virtulan  Rich,  William  R.  Sanford,  Nelson  A.  Saxton, 
Homer  L.  D.  Sweet,  Samuel  Thome,  and  M.  W.  C.  Wright. 


,  N.  Y., 
September,  1863. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ITNE-WOOLED  BREEDS   OP  SHEEP. 

The  Spanish,  French,  Saxon,  and  Silesian  Merinos, Page  13 

CHAPTER  II. 

INTRODUCTION  OF    FINE-WOOLED    SHEEP    INTO    THE    UNITED 
STATES. 

Early  Importations  of  Spanish,  French  and  Saxon  Merinos, 22 

CHAPTER  m. 

AMERICAN  MERINOS   ESTABLISHED   AS   A  VARIETY. 

The  Mixed  Leonese  or  Jarvis  Merinos — The  Infantado  or  Atwood 
Merinos— The  Paular  or  Rich  Merinos— Other  Merinos, 27 

CHAPTER  IV. 

LATER    IMPORTATIONS     OF    FINE  -  WOOLED    SHEEP     INTO     THE 
UNITED    STATES. 

French  and  Silesian  Merinos  Introduced, 35 

CHAPTER  V. 

BRITISH   AND   OTHER    LONG    AND    MIDDLE  -  WOOLED    SHEEP   IN 
THE    UNITED   STATES. 

Leicesters,  Cotswolds,  Lincolns,  New  Oxfordshires,  Black -Faced 
Scotch,  Cheviot,  Fat-Rumped,  Broad  -  Tailed,  Persian  and 
Chinese  Sheep, 43 

CHAPTER  VI. 

BRITISH    SHORT  -  WOOLED    SHEEP,  ETC.,  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  South  Downs,  Hampshire  Downs,  Shropshire  Downs  and 
Oxfordshire  Downs, 55 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE   POINTS   TO   BE   BEGARDED   IN  PINE  -  WOOLED   SHEEP. 

Carcass  —  Skin  —  Folds  or  Wrinkles  —  Fleece  —  Fineness  —  Even- 
ness— Trueness  and  Soundness—  Pliancy  and  Softness—  Style 
and  Length  of  Wool,  .....................................  68 


CHAPTER 

THE    SAME    SUBJECT   CONTINUED. 

Yolk—  Chemical  Analysis  of  Yolk  —  Its  Uses  —  Proper  Amount 
and  Consistency  of  it—  Its  Color  —  Coloring  Sheep  Artifi- 
cially —  Artificial  Propagation  and  Preservation  of  Yolk,.  ...  77 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ADAPTATION   OF    BEEEDS   TO   DIFFERENT   SITUATIONS. 

Markets  —  Climate  —  Vegetation  —  Soils  —  Number  of  Sheep  to  be 
Kept  —  Associated  Branches  of  Husbandry,  .................  82 

CHAPTER  X. 

PEOSPECTS   AND  PEOFITS    OF    WOOL  AND   MUTTON  PEODUCTION 
IN  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

Page,  .........................................................    91 

CHAPTER  XL 

PRINCIPLES   AND   PEACTICE    OF    BEEEDING. 

Page,  ........................................................  .  101 

CHAPTER  XII. 

BEEEDING    IN-AND-IN. 

Page,  .........................................................  116 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

CEOSS  -  BEEEDING. 

Cross-Breeding  the  Merino  and  Coarse  Breeds—  Crossing  Different 
families  of  Merinos  —  Crossing  Between  English  Breeds  and 
Families—  Recapitulation,  ..........................  ........  124 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

SPEING   MANAGEMENT. 

Catching  and  Handling—  Turning  Out  to  Grass—  Tagging—  Burs— 

L,ambmg—  Proper  Place  for  Lambing—  Mechanical  Assistance 

in  Lambing—  Inverted  Womb  -5-  Management  of  New  -Born 

Lambs  —  Artificial  Feeding  —  Chilled    Lambs  —  Constipation 

-  Cutting  Teeth  —  Pinning  —  Diarrhea  or  Purging,  ........     139 


CONTENTS.  1JC 

CHAPTER  XV. 
SPRING  MANAGEMENT   CONTINUED. 

Congenital  Goitre  —  Imperfectly  Developed  Lambs  —  Rheumatism 

—  Treatment  of  the   Ewe  after  Lambing—  Closed    Teats- 
Uneasiness  —Inflamed  Udder—  Drying  off—  Disowning  Lambs 

—  Foster  Lambs  —  Docking  Lambs  —  Castration,  ............  153 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

SUMMER  MANAGEMENT. 

Mode  of  Washing  Sheep—  Utility  of  Washing  Considered—  Cutting 
—  Time  between  Washing  and  Shearing  —  Shearing 

—  Stubble  Shearing    and    Trimming  —  Shearing  Lambs  an 


the  Hoofs  —  Time  between      asng  an        earng  —     earng 
mming  —  Shearing  Lambs  and 
Shearing  Sheep  semi-annually  —  Doing  up  Wool  —  Frauds  in 


Doing  up  Wool  —  Storing  Wool  —  Place  for  Selling  Wool  — 
Wool  Depots  and  Commission  Stores  —  Sacking  Wool,  .....  163 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

SUMMER   MANAGEMENT  -  CONTINUED. 

Drafting  and  Selection  —  Registration  —  Marking  and  Numbering 

—  Storms  after    Shearing  —  Sun  -Scald  —  Ticks  —  Shortening 
Horns  —  Maggots  —  Confining  Rams  —  Training  Ranis  —  Fences 
—Salt  —  Tar,  Sulphur,  Alum,  &c.—  Water  in  Pastures  —Shade 

in  Pastures  —  Housing  Sheep  in  Summer  —  Pampering,  ......  17<ft 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

FALL     MANAGEMENT. 

Weaning  and  Fall  Feeding  Lambs  —  Sheltering  Lambs  in  Fall  — 
Fall  Feeding  and  Sheltering  Breeding  Ewes  —  Selecting  Ewes 
for  the  Ram  —  Coupling  —  Period  of  Gestation  —  Management 
of  Rams  during  Coupling  —  Dividing  Flocks  for  Winter,  ____  198 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

WINTER   MANAGEMENT. 

Winter  Shelter—  Temporary  Sheds—  Hay  Barns  with  Open  Sheds 

—  Sheep  Barns  or  Stables—  Cleaning  out  Stables  in  Winter- 
Yards  —  Littering  Yards  —  Confining  Sheep  in  Yards  and  to 
Dry  Feed,  ............................................  ....  211 

CHAPTER  XX. 

WINTER   MANAGEMENT  -  CONTINUED. 

Hay  Racks  —  Water  for  Sheep  in  Winter  —  Amount  of  Food 
Consumed  by  Sheep  in  Winter  —  Value  of  Different  Fodders 
—Nutritive  Equivalents—  Mixed  Feeds  —  Fattening  Sheep  in 
Winter—  Regularity  in  Feeding  —  Salt  .....................  230 


j  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

PEAIEIE    SHEEP   HUSBANDRY. 

Prairie  Management  in  Summer  — Lambing— Folds  and  Dogs- 
Stables— Herding— Washing— Shearing— Storing  and  Sell- 
ing Wool — Ticks — Prairie  Diseases  —  Salt  —Weaning  Lambs 
—  Prairie  Management  in  Winter  —  Winter  Feed  — Sheds  or 
Stables— Water— Location  of  Sheep  Establishment, 248 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

ANATOMY  AND   DISEASES    OF    SHEEP. —  THE    HEAD. 

Comparatively  small  Number  of  American  Sheep  Diseases  — Low 
Type  of  American  Sheep  Diseases — Anatomy  of  the  Sheep 
—The  Skeleton  — The  Skull  — The  Horns  and  their  Diseases 
—The  Teeth  — Swelled  Head  — Sore  Face  — Swelled  Lips  — 
Inflammation  of  the  Eye, 261 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ANATOMY  AND   DISEASES  OF  THE    SHEEP'S   HEAD,  CONTINUED. 

Section  of  Sheep's  Head  — Grub  in  the  Head  — Hydatid  on  the 
Brain  — Water  on  the  Brain  —Apoplexy  —  Inflammation  of 
the  Brain  — Tetanus  or  Locked -Jaw  —  Epilepsy  —  Palsy  — 
Rabies 273 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

DISEASES   OF   THE    DIGESTIVE     ORGANS. 

Blain  — Obstructions  of  the  Gullet— The  Stomachs  and  their 
Diseases — External  and  Internal  Appearance  of  the  Stomachs 
—The  Mode  of  Administering  Medicines  into  the  Stomachs 
of  Sheep — Hoove — Poisons  —  Inflammation  of  the  Rumen, 
or  Paunch  —  Obstruction  of  the  Maniplus  —  Acute  Dropsy, 
or  Red -Water  — Enteritis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Coats  of 
the  Intestines  —  Diarrhea — Dysentery  —  Constipation —  Colic, 
or  Stretches— Braxy,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Bowels— Worms 
—  Pining, 291 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

DISEASES     OF     THE     CIRCULATORY      AND      THE      RESPIRATORY 

SYSTEMS. 

The  Pulse— Place  and  Mode  of  Bleeding— Fever  —  Inflammatory 
Fever — Malignant  Inflammatory  Fever  —  Typhus  Fever  — 
Catarrh— Malignant  Epizootic  Catarrh— Pneumonia,  or  Inflam- 
mation of  the  Lungs— Pleuritis  or  Pleurisy— Consumption,. .  314 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   GENERATIVE   AND   URINARY    ORGANS. 

Abortion— Inversion  of  the  Womb  —  Garget  —  Parturient,  or 
Puerperal  Fever —Cystitis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Bladder,. .  329 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

DISEASES   OP  THE   SKIN. 

The  Scab  —  Erysipelatous  Scab  —  Wild  fire  and  Ignis  Sacer  — 
Other  Cutaneous  Eruptions — Small  Pox,  or  Variola  Ovina,..  338 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   LOCOMOTIVE    OEGANS. 

Fractures — Rheumatism — Disease  of  the  Biflex  Canal  —  Gravel 
—  Travel -Sore — Lameness  from  Frozen  Mud — Fouls — Hoof- 
Rot, 354 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

OTHER  DISEASES,   WOUNDS,   ETC. 

The  Rot— Scrofula  — Hereditary  Diseases  —  Cuts— Lacerated  and 
Contused  Wounds— Punctured  Wounds— Dog  Bites— Poisoned 
Wounds— Sprains  —  Bruises  — Abscess, 373 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

LIST    OF   MEDICINES. 


Page 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE   DOG   IN   ITS   CONNECTION  WITH   SHEEP. 

The  Injuries  inflicted  by  Dogs  on  Sheep  —The  Sheep  Dog— The 
Spanish  Sheep  Dog— The  Hungarian  Sheep  Dog  — The 
French  Sheep  Dog-- The  Mexican  Sheep  Dog  — The  South 
American  Sheep  Dog  —  Other  Large  Races  of  Sheep  Dogs 

—  The  English  Sheep  Dog— The  Scotch  Sheep  Dog,  or  Colley 

—  Accustoming  Sheep  to  Dogs, 


APPENDICES. 

A. —  Origin  of  the  Improved  Infantados, 412 

B. —  Origin  of  the  Improved  Paulars, 416 

»  C.—  English  Experiments  in  Feeding  Sheep, 418 

D.—  Sheep  and  Product  of  Wool  in  United  States, 425 

E.— Starting  a  Sheep  Establishment  in  the  New  Western  States,  427 

F.— Climate  of  Texas, 428 

G.—  Proportion  of  Meat  to  Wool  in  Sheep  of  Different  Ages, 

Sexes  and  Sizes, 433 

H. —  The  American  Merinos  at  the  International  Exhibition  of 

1863, 438 

LIST  OP  ILLUSTRATIONS, 440 

INDEX, 441 


THE    PRACTICAL    SHEPHERD. 


CHAPTER    I. 
FINE-WOOLED    BEEEDS    OP   SHEEP, 

THE    SPANISH,    FRENCH,    SAXON    AND    SILESIAN    MERINOS. 

THE  SPANISH  MERINO. — From  a  period  anterior  to  the 
Christian  era,  fine-wooled  Sheep  abounded  in  Spain,  and  they 
were,  or  gradually  ripened  into,  a  breed  distinct  in  its 
characteristics  from  all  other  breeds  in  the  world.  It  was, 
however,  divided  into  provincial  varieties  which  exhibited 
considerable  differences ;  and  these  were  subdivided  into  great 
permanent  cabanas  or  flocks  which  being  kept  distinct  from 
each  other  and  subjected  to  special  courses  of  breeding, 
assumed  the  character  of  separate  families  varying  somewhat, 
but  in  a  lesser  degree,  from  each  other. 

The  first  division  recognized  in  Spain  was  into  Transhu- 
mantes  or  traveling  flocks  and  Estantes  or  stationary  flocks. 
The  first  were  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  and  were 
owned  by  the  king  and  some  of  the  principal  nobles  and 
clergy.  They  were  pastured  in  winter  on  the  plains  of 
Southern  Spain,  and  driven  in  spring  (commencing  the 
journey  in  April,)  to  the  fresh  green  herbage  of  the  mountains 
in  Northern  Spain.  They  began  their  return  early  in  October. 
The  route,  each  way,  averaged  about  four  hundre'4  miles  and 
was  completed  in  six  weeks.  Through  inclosed  regions  and 
where  the  feed  was  scarce,  they  often  traveled  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  miles  a  day.  The  lambs  were  dropped  early  in 
January.  Nearly  half  of  them,  and  sometimes  in  seasons  of 
bad  pasturage,  three-fourths  of  them  were  destroyed  as  soon 
as  yeaned,  and  those  which  were  preserved  were  usually 
suckled  by  two  ewes.  This  was  intended  for  the  benefit  of 


14  SPANISH   FAMILIES. 

both  lambs  and  ewes.  The  latter  were  thought  to  produce 
more  wool  than  when  each  suckled  a  lamb.  The  lambs  were 
little  over  three  months  old  when  the  spring  migration 
commenced,  and  about  nine  months  old  when  the  autumnal 
one  commenced.  Thus  every  year  of  its  life  the  migratory 
Merino  performed  a  journey  of  eight  hundred  miles,  and 
passed  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  entire  time  on  the  road.  It 
received  neither  shelter  nor  artificial  food.  Such  a  training 
constantly  weeded  out  of  the  flock  the  old,  the  feeble  and  the 
weak  in  constitution,  and  developed  among  those  which 
remained  capabilities  for  enduring  exertion  and  hardship  to 
an  extraordinary  degree. 

Some  of  the  most  esteemed  families  of  migratory  Merinos 
are  thus  mentioned  by  Lasteyrie:  —  "The  Escurial  breed  is 
supposed  to  possess  the  finest  wool  of  all  the  migratory  sheep. 
The  Gaudeloupe  have  the  most  perfect  form,  and  are  likewise 
celebrated  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their  wool.  The 
Paulars  bear  much  wool  of  a  fine  quality ;  but  they  have  a 
more  evident  enlargement  behind  the  ears,  and  a  greater 
degree  of  throatiness,  and  their  lambs  have  a  coarse,  hairy 
appearance,  which  is  succeeded  by  excellent  wool.  The 
lambs  of  the  Infantados  have  the  same  hairy  coat  when 
young.  The  Negretti  are  the  largest  and  strongest  of  all  the 
Spanish  traveling  sheep." 

Vague  and  unsatisfactory  as  is  this  description,  it  is 
perhaps  the  best  contemporaneous  one  extant,  of  that  period 
near  the  opening  of  the  present  century  when  the  flocks  of 
Spain  had  reached  their  highest  point  of  excellence  —  and 
before  invasion  and  civil  war  had  led  to  their  sale  into  foreign 
countries  and  their  almost  general  destruction  or  dispersion 
at  home.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  small  pains  taken 
by  Lasteyrie  and  his  contemporaries  to  point  out  the  distinc- 
tions between  the  best  Spanish  families, —  the  "Leonesa"  as 
they  were  collectively  called — resulted  from  the  fact,  that  the 
foreign  breeders  of  that  day,  and  the  Spaniards  themselves, 
attached  but  little  importance  to  those  distinctions  in  respect 
to  value — though  in  respect  to  breeding  they  were  rigorously 
preserved. 

To  furnish  the  reader  with  some  data  for  comparison 
between  the  several  Spanish  families  and  their  American 
descendants,  I  select  the  following  facts  from  a  table  prepared 
byPetri,  an  intelligent  and  highly  trustworthy  writer,  who 
visited  Spain  near  the  beginning  of  this  century  on  purpose 
to  examine  its  Sheep;  and  I  add  some  measurements  of 


SPANISH   FLEECES. 


15 


American  Merinos  made  of  Sheep  in  no  wise  extraordinary 
in  tlieir  forms.* 


NAMES  OF  FLOCKS. 


NEGBETTI. 

Earn..       .  

Ewe 

INFANTADO. 

Earn 

Ewe 

GUADELOUPE. 

Earn 

Ewe 

ESTANTES  or  SIERRA  DE  SOMO. 

Earn 

Ewe 

SHALL  ESTANTES. 

Earn 

Ewe. 


Earn. 
Ewe. 
Ewe. 
Ewe. 


Ibs. 
07 
07 

100M10 
70 


V*  1 


AMERICAK  MERI 


in 
2    2 
2    1 

2    3 
1 

2    2 
2    1 

2    0 

2    1 


2  4 

2  4 

2  5 

2  3 


ft.  in.lft.  in 

4    2K4    l)i 


4    3>£  3  11 


t    5 
3  11 


4    6K1    0 
3    9 


2 

2  10 


4    3 

4    0% 


These  weights  and  measures,  except  those  of  the  American 
sheep,  are  Austrian.  The  Austrian  pound  is  equal  to  1.037 
pounds  avoirdupois;  the  Austrian  foot  to  1.234  English  feet. 

The  fleece  of  the  Spanish  Merino  was  level  on  the  surface 
and  so  dense  that,  like  that  of  its  American  descendant,  it 
opposed  a  firm  resistance  when  grasped  by  the  hand,  instead 
of  yielding  under  the  fingers  like  fur,  hair,  or  the  thin  wool  of 
other  races  of  sheep.  The  wool  was  shorter  than  that  of  the 
improved  American  Merino  and  particularly  so  on  the  belly, 
legs  and  head.  It  was  very  even  in  quality,  both  as  between 
diiferent  sheep  and  on  different  parts  of  the  same  sheep.  The 
most  celebrated  flocks,  with. the  exception  of  the  Escurial, 
were  dark  colored  externally — about  as  dark  as  the  present 
Merino  sheep  in  our  own  Middle  and  Western  States,  which 
are  not  housed  in  summer.  The  wool  was  rendered  moist  to 


*  They  were  taken  from  my  flock,  and  the  measurements,  &c.,  made  in  December. 
1861.  The  ewes  were  a  little  over  average  size,  but  the  ram  was  quite  small.  His 
usual  weight  immediately  after  shearing  is  but  100  pounds.  1  selected  him  more 
particularly  to  exhibit  another  contrast,  with  the  Spanish  Sheep.  His  unwashed 
fleece  of  a  single  year's  growth  has  reached  21  Ibs.  and  averages  about  20  Ibs.  "21 
per  cent.,"  as  he  is  called,  was  bred  by  Edwin  Hammond,  Esq.,  of  Middlebury,  Yt. 


16  6PANISH   WOOL. 

the  feel,  brilliant  and  heavy,  by  yolk,  but  it  did  not  exhibit 
this  in  viscid  or  indurated  masses  within,  or  in  a  black,  pitchy 
coating  without.  It  opened  with  a  fine,  flashing  luster,  and 
with  a  yellowish  tinge  which  deepened  toward  its  outer  ends. 

Livingston  gives  the  weight  of  the  unwashed  Spanish 
fleeces  at  8£  Ibs.  in  the  ram  and  5  Ibs.  in  the  ewe.  Youatt 
places  the  weight  of  the  ram's  fleece  half  a  pound  lower.  The 
King  of  England's  flock  of  Negretti's^  about  one  hundred  in 
number,  which  were  picked  sheep  and  included  some  wethers 
(but  no  rams,)  yielded,  during  five  years,  an  annual  average 
of  a  little  over  3£  Ibs.  of  brook -washed  wool  per  head,  and 
each  fleece  afterwards  lost  about  a  pound  in  scouring.* 

Youatt  measured  the  diameter  of  the  wool  of  the  various 
flocks  first  introduced  from  Spain  into  England.  I  judge 
from  his  statements  that  1-750  part  of  an  inch  maybe  assumed 
as  about  the  average  diameter  or  fineness  of  the  good  Spanish 
wool  of  that  period.  The  same  ingenious  investigator 
discovered  that  conformation  of  the  fibers  which  causes  the 
felting  property.  It  is  produced  by  "serrations,"  as  he  terms 
them, — tooth-like  projections  on  the  wool,  all  pointing  in  a 
direction  from  the  root  to  the  point,  and  so  inconceivably 
minute  that  2560  of  them  occur  in  the  space  of  an  inch  of  the 
fiber.  They  are  more  numerous  in  proportion  to  the  fineness 
of  the  wool,  and  on  their  number,  regularity  and  sharpness 
depends  the  perfection  of  the  felting  property.  In  this 
respect  the  finest  grades  of  Merino  wool  exceed  all  others. 
The  following  cuts  give  the  magnified  appearance  of  a  fine 
specimen  of  Spanish  wool,  viewed  both  as  an  opaque  and 
transparent  object. 


These  tooth-like  processes  are  still  finer  on  choice  speci' 
mens  of  Saxon  wool  ;  on  that  of  the  coarse-wooled  varieties 
of  sheep  they  are  comparatively  few,  blunt  and  irregular. 

The  best  flocks  of  Spain,  as  already  mentioned,  were  lost 
to  that  country  during  the  Peninsular  war.  In  answer  to  an 
application  for  information  from  T.  S.  Humrickhouse,  Esq.,  of 


^ 


IM:I>I:NT  SPANISH  MERINOS.  17 

Ohio,  made  with  a  view  to  importations  and  directed  to  the 
Spanish  Minister  in  Washington,  in  1852,  that  functionary 
caused  inquiry  to  be  made  in  relation  to  the  existing  condition 
of  the  flocks  of  Spain.  The  statements  sent  back,  in  1854, 
appear  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Spanish  "General 
Association  of  Wool  Growers."  The  substance  of  them  is 
condensed  into  the  following  paragraph : 

"Although  it  is  certain  that,  in  the  war  of  Independence, 
a  great  number  of  the  said  flocks,  [the  choice  Transhumantes 
of  Estremadura  and  Leon,  such  as  the  Infantado,  Paular, 
Guadeloupe,  Negretti,  Escurial,  Montarco,  etc.,]  were  de- 
stroyed, and  others  diminished  and  divided,  it  is  equally 
certain  that  they  still  exist  in  their  majority  and  with  the 
same  good  qualities  which  formerly  made  them  so  desirable 
and  necessary.  If,  therefore,  as  it  appears  from  the  commu- 
nication which  has  given  rise  to  this  report,  the  wool  growers 
of  the  United  States  should  have  a  desire  and  want  to 
purchase  fine  sheep,  they  may  come  sure  they  will  not  be 
disappointed." 

Then  follows  an  extended  list  of  flocks  with  the  names  of 
their  owners.*  The  Escurial,  the  Negretti  and  the  Arriza, 
are  the  only  ones  admitted  to  have  been  lost. 

Conceding  to  these  statements  the  merit  of  entire  candor, 
they  simply  show  that  the  Spaniards  place  a  very  different 
estimate  on  their  present  sheep  from  that  placed  on  them  by 
American  breeders.  The  late  John  A.  Taintor,  Esq.,  o, 
Connecticut,  who  seven  times  visited  Europe  to  buy  sheepf 
carefully  examined  the  flocks  of  Spain  with  an  earnest  wish 
to  find  superior  animals  in  them  for  importation  to  the  United 
States.  He  wrote  to  me  in  1862,  that  the  Spanish  sheep 
"  were  so  small,  neglected  and  miserable,  that  he  would  not 
take  one  of  them  as  a  present."!  In  1860  a  gentleman  of 
Estremadura,  whose  flock  Mr.  Taintor  could  not  visit  when 
in  Spain,  sent  him  a  number  of  fleeces  as  samples;  and  one  of 
these  Mr.  Taintor  forwarded  to  me.  It  weighed,  in  the  dirt, 
5  Ibs.  11  oz.  The  wool  was  about  as  long  as  ordinary 
American  Merino  wool,  was  not  very  even  in  quality,  and 
was  scarcely  middling  in  point  of  fineness!  Mr.  William 
Chamberlain,  of  Red  Hook,-  New  York,  the  well  known 


*  Scarcely  any  of  these  are  the  ancient  owners,  or  those  -who  held  the  flocks 
•when  the  war  "  of  Independence  "  commenced. 

t  See  his  letter  to  me  in  my  Report  on  Fine-Wool  Husbandry  in  Transactions 
of  N.  Y.  State  Agricultural  Society  for  1861.  (The  Report  was  made  early  in  1862 
and  will  hereafter  be  cited  as  of  that  year.) 


18  THE    FRENCH   MERINO. 

importer  of  Silesian  Merinos,  informs  me  that  he  imported 
about  thirty  Merinos  from  Spain,  a  few  years  since,  and  that 
after  seeing  them  and  shearing  them  he  quietly  sold  them  in 
the  ensuing  autumn  to  the  butcher!  William  R.  Sanford,  of 
Orwell,  Vermont,  a  Merino  sheep  breeder  of  great  judgment 
and  experience,  visited  the  flocks  of  Spain,  France  and 
Germany,  in  1851,  in  behalf  of  himself,  Mr.  Hammond  and 
some  other  gentlemen  of  the  same  State,  to  ascertain  whether 
fine-wooled  sheep  superior  to  those  of  the  United  States  could 
be  found  in  Europe.  He  thus  wrote  to  me  in  respect  to  the 
sheep  of  Spain: 

*  *  *  «  On  arriving  at  Madrid  I  found  that  most 
of  those  who  owned  sheep  to  any  amount  lived  in  the  city, 
and  through  our  Minister  I  got  introductions  to  them.  From 
what  I  could  learn  from  them  in  regard  to  the  form,  weight 
of  fleece,  etc.,  of  their  sheep,  I  became  satisfied  that  they  had 
none  of  much  value.  They  finally  admitted  that  they  were 
not  as  good  as  formerly,  and  that  they  were  going  to 
Germany  for  bucks  to  improve  them.  I  concluded,  however, 
I  would  go  and  see  for  myself.  It  is  about  200  miles  from 
Madrid  to  the  plains  of  Estremadura,  where  they  winter  their 
sheep.  On  examining  the  flocks,  I  found  they  had  no  fixed 
character.  Occasionally  there  would  be  a  fair  looking  sheep. 
At  first  they  pretended  that  their  sheep  were  pure  and  the 
best  in  the  world.  But  when  they  found  that  I  understood  the 
history  of  their  flocks,  and  what  I  wanted,  they  admitted  they 
were  not  as  good  as  the  former  ones,  and  they  gave  as  a 
reason  that  they  had  no  standard  flocks  to  resort  to  as  they 
had  before  the  French  invasion, — at  which  time  those 
standard  flocks  were  all  broken  up,  those  which  were  not 
eaten,  being  sold  and  mixed  with  the  common  sheep  of  the 
country,  which  were  a  very  inferior  kind.  I  did  not  see  a 
sheep  in  Spain  that  I  would  pay  freight  on  to  this  country.  I 
do  not  believe  they  have  any  that  are  of  pure  blood." 

I  have  conversed  with  several  other  American  sheep 
breeders  who  have  visited  the  Spanish  flocks  within  the  last 
fifteen  years,  and  all  of  them  substantially  concur  in  the 
opinions  above  expressed. 

THE  FRENCH  MERINO. — After  several  successful  smaller 
experiments  in  acclimating  the  Spanish  Merino  in  France, 
about  300  of  them  were  imported  under  royal  auspices  to  that 
country  in  1786.  Gilbert,  a  French  writer  of  reputation,  in  a 


THE   FRENCH   MERINO.  19 

report  made  to  the  National  Institute  of  France,  ten  years 
afterwards,  thus  speaks  of  them : 

"The  stock  from  which  the  flock  of  Rambouillet  was 
derived,  was  composed  of  individuals  beautiful  beyond  any 
that  had  ever  before  been  brought  from  Spain;  but  having 
been  chosen  from  a  great  number  of  flocks,  in  different  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  they  were  distinguished  by  very  striking 
local  differences,  which  formed  a  medley  disagreeable  to  the 
eye,  but  immaterial  as  it  affected  their  quality.  These 
characteristic  differences  have  melted  into  each  other,  by 
their  successive  alliances,  and  from  thence  has  resulted  a  race 
which  perhaps  resembles  none  of  those  which  composed  the 
primitive  stock,  but  which  certainly  does  not  yield  in  any 
circumstance  to  the  most  beautiful  in  point  of  size,  form  and 
strength,  or  in  the  fineness,  length,  softness,  strength  and 
abundance  of  fleece.  *  *  *  The  comparison  I  have 
made  with  the  most  scrupulous  attention,  between  this  wool 
and  the  highest  priced  of  that  drawn  from  Spain,  authorizes 
me  to  declare  that  of  Rambouillet  superior." 

Lasteyrie  thus  gives  their  weight  of  fleeces,  unwashed, 
through  a  series  of  years: — In  1796,  6  Ibs.  9  oz.;  1797,  8  Ibs.; 
1793,  7  Ibs.;  1799,  8  Ibs.;  1800,  8  Ibs.;  1801,  9  Ibs.  1  oz.  In 
1802,  he  says: — "The  medium  weight  of  full  grown  nursing 
ewes'  fleece's  was  8  Ibs.  7  oz.;  of  the  ewes  of  three  years  old, 
which  had  no  lambs,  9  Ibs.  13  oz.;  and  two-tenths  [grade] 
ewes,  10  Ibs.  8  oz." 

Mr.  Trimmer,  an  English  flock-master  and  writer  of  ex- 
perience, thus  described  them  in  1827  : 

"  The  sheep,  in  size,  are  certainly  the  largest  pure  Merinos 
I  have  ever  seen.  The  wo6l  is  of  various  qualities,  many 
sheep  carrying  very  fine  fleeces,  others  middling,  and  some 
rather  indifferent ;  but  the  whole  is  much  improved  from  the 
quality  of  the  original  Spanish  Merinos.  In  carcass  and 
appearance  I  hesitate  not  to  say  they  are  the  most  unsightly 
flock  of  the  kind  I  ever  met  with.  The  Spaniards  entertained 
an  opinion  that  a  looseness  of  skin  under  the  throat,  and  other 
parts,  contributed  to  the  increase  of  fleece.  This  system  the 
French  have  so  much  enlarged  on  that  they  have  produced,  in 
this  flock,  individuals  with  dewlaps  almost  down  to  the  knees, 
and  folds  of  skin  on  the  neck,  like  frills,  covering  nearly  the 
head.  Several  of  these  animals  seem  to  possess  pelts  of  such 
looseness  of  size  that  one  skin  would  nearly  hold  the  carcasses 
of  two  such  sheep.  The  pelts  are  particularly  thick,  which  is 
unusual  in  the  Merino  sheep.  The  rams'  fleeces  were  stated 


THE   SAXON   MEEINO. 


at  14  Ibs.,  and  the  ewes'  10  Ibs.,  in  the  grease.     By  washing 
they  would  be  reduced  half,  thus  giving  7  and  5  Ibs.  each. 

But  the  royal  flock  was  already  beginning  to  be  out- 
stripped by  private  ones  in  size  of  carcass  and  weight  of 
fleece,  and  now  there  are  a  very  few  choice  flocks  in  France 
which  are  said  to  average  14  Ibs.  of  unwashed  wool  to  the 
fleece  in  ewes,  and  from  20  Ibs.  to  24  Ibs.  in  rams,  the  ewes 
weighing  150  Ibs.  and  the  rams  200  Ibs. 

THE  SAXON  MERINO.—  In  1765,  three  hundred  Merinos 
were  introduced  from  Spain  into  Saxony.  They,  too,  were  a 
royal  importation,  and  were  placed  in  government  establish- 
ments. It  is  understood  they  were  selected  principally  if  not 
exclusively  from  the  Escurial  cabana. 

The  course  of  breeding  and  management  generally  adopted 
in  that  country  tended  to  develop  a  very  high  quality  of  wool 
at  the  expense  of  its  quantity  and  at  the  expense  of  both  car- 
cass and  constitution.  The  sheep  were  not  only  housed  during 
the  winter,  but  at  night,  during  all  rainy  weather,  and 
generally  from  the  noonday  sun  in  summer.  They  were  not 
even  allowed  to  run  on  wet  grass.  Their  food  was  accurately 
portioned  out  to  them  in  quantity  and  in  varying  courses; 
their  stable  arrangements  were  systematic  and  included  a 
multitude  of  careful  manipulations;  at  yeaning  time  they 
received  (and  came  to  require)  about  as  much  care  as  human 
patients. 

When  introduced  into  the  United  States  (1824,)  the  Saxon 
lacked  from  a  fifth  to  a  quarter  of  the  weight  of  the  parent 
Spanish  stock  in  the  country,  and  the  latter  were  materially 
smaller  then  than  now.  Their  forms  indicated  a  far  feebler 
constitution  than  those  of  the  Spanish  sheep.  They  were 
slimmer,  finer  boned,  taller  in  proportion,  and  thinner  in  the 
head  and  neck,  —  and  shorter,  thinner,  finer  and  evener  in  the 
fleece.  The  wool  had  no  hardened  yolk  internally  or  externally; 
was  white  externally;  and  opened  white  instead  of  having  the 
buff  tinge  of  the  unwashed  Spanish  wool.  It  was  from  an  inch 
to  an  inch  and  a  half  long  on  the  back  and  sides  and  shorter 
on  the  head,  legs  and  belly.  Medium  specimens  of  it 
measured  about  1-840  parts  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
washed  fleeces  on  an  average  weighed  from  1J  Ibs.  to  2  Ibs. 
in  ewes,  and  from  2  Ibs.  to  3  Ibs.  in  rams.  There  has  been  a 
regeneration  and  improvement  of  this  variety  in  various  parts 
of  Germany,  but  an  account  of  these  changes  would  possess 
little  interest  for  the  mass  of  practical  American  breeders. 


THE    SILESIAN  MERINO.  21 

THE  SILESIAN  MERINO. —  Prussian  Silesia  has  numerous 
flocks  of  sheep  descended  from  the  Electoral  and  other  Saxon 
flocks.  These  require  no  separate  mention  here.  An  impor- 
tation of  a  different  family  of  Merinos  has  been  made  from 
that  country  to  the  United  States,  and  they  have  acquired, 
here,  the  distinctive  appellation  of  Silesian  Merinos.  These 
will  be  described  when  an  account  is  given  of  the  importations 
of  foreign  fine-wooled  sheep  into  the  United  States. 

^w    Ry.M.<JuVivJiL*«-t 


. 


CHAPTER    II. 

INTEODUOTION  OP  PDTE-WOOLED  SHEEP  INTO  THE 
UNITED   STATES, 

EARLY    IMPORTATIONS    OP     SPANISH,    FRENCH    AND     SAXON 
MEKINOS. 

SPANISH  MEKINOS  INTRODUCED. — Wm.  Foster,  of  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  imported  three  Merino  sheep  from  Spain  into 
that  city  in  1793.  They  were  given  to  a  friend,  who  killed 
them  for  mutton!  In  1801  M.  Dupont  de  Nemours,  and  a 
French  banker  named  Delessert,  sent  four  ram  lambs  to  the 
United  States.  All  perished  on  the  passage  but  one,  which 
was  used  for  several  years  in  New  York,  and  subsequently 
founded  some  excellent  grade  flocks  for  his  owner,  E.  I. 
Dupont,  near  Wilmington,  Delaware.  He  was  of  fine  form, 
weighed  138  Ibs.,  and  yielded  8J  Ibs.  of  brook-washed 
wool, —  the  heaviest  fleece  borne  by  any  of  the  early  imported 
Merinos  of  which  I  have  seen  any  account.*  The  same  year, 
Seth  Adams,  of  Zanesville,  Ohio,  imported  into  Boston  a  pair 
of  Spanish  sheep  which  had  been  brought  from  Spain  into 
France.  I  know  nothing  of  their  later  history.  In  1802,  Mr. 
Livingston,  American  Minister  in  France,  sent  home  two 
pairs  of  French  Merinos,  purchased  from  the  Government 
flock  at  Chalons.  The  rams  appear  from  their  recorded 
weights  to  have  been  larger  than  Spanish  rams,  but  a  picture 
of  one  of  them  which  is  extant  exhibits  no  difference  of  form, 
and  I  have  always  learned  from  those  who  saw  them,  that 
they  bore  no  resemblance  to  the  modern  French  Merinos. 
Mr.  Livingston  subsequently  imported  a  French  ram  from  the 
Rambouillet  flock.  This  eminent  public  benefactor  was  too 
much  engrossed  in  a  multitude  of  great  undertakings  to  give 

*  As  Dupont  de  Nemours  was  the  head  of  the  Commission  appointed  by  the 
French  Government  to  select  in  Spain  the  flocks  of  Merinos  given  up  by  the  latter  by 
the  Treaty  of  Basle,  I  conjecture  that  this  ram  was  from  the  original  Spanish,  and 
not  from  the  French  stock. 


IMPORTATIONS  OP  SPANISH  SHEEP.  23 

that  close  individual  attention  to  his  sheep  which  is  necessary 
to  marked  success  in  breeding.  But  his  statements  show  that 
he  improved  them  considerably. 

The  following  table  in  respect  to  his  sheep  in  1810, 1  take 
from  a  manuscript  letter  of  his,  not  before  published.  As  the 
weights  given  both  of  carcasses  and  fleeces  considerably 
exceed  those  of  the  previous  year  (published  in  his  Essay  on 
Sheep,  p.  186,)  it  is  probable  that  the  sheep  had  been  highly 
kept.  The  wool  was  unwashed. 

Stock  rams.  Weight.  Weight  of  fleece. 

One,  6  years  old. 146  Ibs.  91bs imported  from  Rambouille. 

"     2  years  old, 146  Ibs.  9  Ibs raised  here. 

"     1  year  old, 145  Ibs.         11  Ibs.  11  oz.  raised  here. 

Ewes.  Average  weight  of  fleece. 

Common  (268) 3  Ibs.  10  oz. 

Half-breed,  or  first  cross, 5  Ibs.  1  oz.     . 

Three-fourths,  or  second  cross, 6  Ibs,  3  oz.,  heaviest  fleece,  8  Ibs. 

Seven-eighths,  or  third  cross, 6  Ibs.  6  oz.  do.          8  Iba.  4  oz. 

Full-blood,.... 5  Ibs.  13  oz.  do.          8  Ibs.  12  oz. 

His  half-blood  wool  sold  for  75  cents ;  three-fourths  for 
$1.25;  seven-eighths  for  $1.50;  full-blood  for  $2.00.  He  sold 
four  full-blood  ram  lambs  for  $4,000 ;  fourteen  fifteen-sixteenths 
blood  do.  for  $3,500;  twenty  seven-eighths  blood  do.  for  $2,000; 
thirty  three-fourths  blood  do.  for  $900.  He  says  if  the  lambs 
had  been  a  year  old  they  would  have  sold  50  per  cent,  higher.* 

Later  in  the  year  1802  Col.  Humphreys,  the  Americas 
Minister  in  Spain,  brought  home  with  him  21  rams  and  70 
ewes  bought  for  him  in  that  country.  I  find  no  definite  early 
statistics  of  the  flock,  though  in  manuscript  letters  of  Col.  H. 
seen  by  me,  he  states  that  they  constantly  improved  in 
weight  of  fleece  and  in  carcass.  He  mentions  as  worthy  of 
note  that  a  ram  raised  on  his  farm  yielded  7  Ibs.  5  oz.  of 
washed  wool.  The  reputation  of  his  flock,  handed  down  by 
tradition,  is  an  excellent  one.  Various  facts  which  I  cannot 
occupy  space  to  give  in  detail,  have  led  me  to  the  undoubting 
conclusion  that  it  was  entirely  from  the  Infantado  cabana  or 
family,  and  that  it  was  selected  from  the  best  sheep  of  that 
family. 

A  gentleman  of  Philadelphia  imported  two  pair  of  black 
Merinos  in  1803,  and  Mr.  Muller,  a  small  number  from  Hesse 
Cassel,  in  1807.f  In  1809,  and  1810  Mr.  Jarvis,  American 

*  This  letter  will  appear  entire  in  the  Transactions  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society  for  1862. 

t  These  crossed  with  Col.  Humphreys'  sheep,  in  the  flock  of  Mr.  Wm.  Caldwell  of 
Philadelphia,  were  the  origin  of  the  formerly  highly  celebrated  flocks  of  Wells  & 
Dickinson,  of  Ohio. 


24  PRICES   OF   WOOL. 

Consul  at  Lisbon,  Portugal,  taking  advantage  of  the  offers  of 
the  Spanish  Junto  to  sell  the  confiscated  flocks  of  certain 
Spanish  nobles,  bought  and  shipped  to  different  ports  in  the 
United  States,  about  three  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty 
sheep.  About  one  thousand  three  hundred  of  these  were 
Aqueirres,  two  hundred  Escurials  and  two  hundred  Montarcos. 
The  remainder  consisted  of  Paulars  and  Negrettis  —  mostly 
of  the  former.* 

Mr.  Jarvis  very  unfortunately  crossed  his  own  flock  with 
the  Saxons,  when  the  latter  were  introduced,  but  he  dis- 
covered his  error  in  tune  to  correct  it,  and  bred  a  pure 
Spanish  flock  to  the  period  of  his  death.  But  he  mixed  his 
different  Spanish  families  together,  consisting  of  about  half 
Paulars,  a  quarter  Aqueirres,  and  the  other  fourth  Escurials, 
Negrettis  and  Montaroos.J  He  stated  to  me  that  the  average 
weight  of  fleece  in  his  full-blood  Merino  flock,  before  his 
Saxon  cross,  was  about  4  lbs.§  This  I  suppose  included  ranis' 
and  wethers'  fleeces.  The  subsequent  history  of  these  sheep 
will  again  be  referred  to.  From  3,000  to  5,000  Spanish 
Merinos  were  imported  into  the  United  States  by  other  persons 
in  1809,  1810,  and  1811. 

The  earlier  importations  had  attracted  little  notice  until 
the  commencement  of  our  commercial  difficulties  with  England 
and  France,  in  1807.  When  the  embargo  was  imposed,  that 
year,  wool  rose  to  $1  a  pound.  In  1809  and  1810  Mr. 
Livingston  sold  his  full-blood  wool,  unwashed,  for  $2  a  pound. 
During  the  war  of  1812,  it  rose  to  $2.50  a  pound.  Many  of 
the  imported  Merino  rams  sold  for  $1,000  apiece,  and  we 
have  seen  that  Mr.  Livingston  sold  ram  lambs  of  his  own 
raising  at  that  price.  Ewes  sometimes  sold  for  equal  sums. 
The  Peace  of  Ghent  (1815,)  re-opened  commerce  and  over- 
threw our  infant  manufactories.  Such  a  revulsion  ensued  that 
before  the  close  of  the  year  full-blood  Merino  sheep  were  sold 
for  $1  a  head!  Wool  did  not  materially  rally  in  price  for  the 
nine  succeeding  years,  and  during  that  period  most  of  the 
full-blood  flocks  of  the  country  were  broken  up  or  adulterated 
in  blood. 


184t>  ta  New  Tork  ASriculttlral  Society's  Trans- 

|  See  his  letter  to  me  on  this  subject  in  1844,  published  that  year  in  the  Albany 
Cultivator  and  New  York  Agriculturist. 

§  Mr.  Jarvis  gives  the  facts  more  precisely  in  a  letter  to  L.  A.  Morrell,  published  in 


in  goo 


SAXON    MERINOS    INTRODUCED.  25 

.  SAXON  MERINOS  INTRODUCED. —  The  woolen  tariff  enacted 
in  1824,  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  production  of  fine-wool, 
and  during  that  and  the  four  succeeding  years  Saxon  Merinos 
were  imported  in  large  numbers  into  the  United  States.  A 
detailed  history  of  these  importations  was  embodied  in  a 
report  on  sheep  which  I  made  to  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society  in  1838,*  the  facts  in  regard  to  the 
Saxons  being  furnished  to  me  by  another  member  of  the 
committee,  Henry  D.  Grove,  the  leading  German  importer 
and  breeder  of  that  variety  of  sheep  in  our  country.  That 
history  having  been  republished  in  the  "American  Shepherd," 
in  "Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,"  and  in  various  other 
publications,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  take  up  space  here 
with  its  curious  particulars  concerning  a  variety  now  pretty 
generally  discarded  in  our  country.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that 
the  most  enormous  frauds  were  practiced;  grade  sheep  were 
mixed  with  nearly  every  importation;  and  these  miserable 
animals  brought  along  with  them  scab  and  hoof-rot,  those  dire 
Bcourges  of  the  ovine  race. 

The  great  discrimination  made  in  favor  of  fine-wool  by 
the  tariff  of  1828,  excited  a  mania  for  its  production,  and 
every  producer  strove  to  obtain  the  finest,  almost  regardless 
of  every  other  consideration.  Size,  weight  of  fleece,  and 
constitution  were  totally  overlooked.  Yet  the  grower  was 
feeding  on  hope.  Fine-wool  did  not  rise  to  a  high  price  until 
after  the  middle  of  1830,  and  neither  then  nor  at  any  subse- 
quent period  did  the  average  price  of  Saxon  exceed  that  of 
Spanish  wool  by  more  than  ten  cents  a  pound — while  at  least 
a  third  more  of  the  latter  could  be  obtained  from  the  same 
number  of  sheep,f  or  the  same  amount  of  feed.  When  we 
consider  this  fact,  and  consider  the  superiority  of  the  Spanish 
sheep  in  every  other  particular  except  fineness  of  wool,  we 
cannot  sufficiently  wonder  that  from  1824  to  1840  the  Saxons 
should  have  received  universal  preference,  have  sold  for  vastly 
higher  prices,  and  that  those  who  owned  Spanish  sheep, 
should  have  in  almost  every  instance  made  haste  to  cross  them 
with  their  small  and  comparatively  worthless  competitors. 

In  about  1840,  however,  a  reaction  commenced,  and  the 
tariff  of  1846,  (which  established  an  even  ad  valorem  duty  of 

*  Published  in  Albany  Cultivator,  March,  1838,  and  partially  in  the  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Society's  Transactions,  1841. 

tMr.  Grove's  flock  of  picked  breeding  sheep — not  excelled  probably  in  the 
United  States  among  pure  bloods,  for  weight  of  fleece  — yielded  an  average  of  2  Ibs. 
It  oz.  per  head  of  washed  wool  in  1840,  and  he  published  this  product  as  a  proof  of 
the  superior  value  of  his  favorite  variety.  See  his  letter  to  me,  Transactions  New 
York  State  Agricultural  Society,  1841,  p.  333. 

2 


gg  SAXON   MEKINOS   INTRODUCED. 

30  per  centum  on  all  wools  and  on  cloths,)  completed  the 
overthrow  of  the  Saxons. 


SAXON    EAM. 

The  cut  of  the  Saxon  ram  above  given,  is  copied  from  an 
engraving  from  a  drawing  by  Mr.  Charles  L.  Fleischmann, 
formerly  draughtsman  for  the  Patent  Office.  The  engraving 
was  published  in  the  Patent  Office  Report  of  1847.  Mr. 
Fleischmann  states  that  it  is  an  accurate  representation  of  the 
best  ram  of  Von  Thaer  (son  of  the  celebrated  Albert  Von 
Thaer,)  made  by  its  owner's  pel-mission  at  Moeglin,  in  1844- 
'45.  The  flocks  of  Von  Thaer  are  among  the  best  and  most 
highly  improved  in  Germany.  The  drawing  was  made  in  the 
beginning  of  the  month  of  August  while  the  fleece  was  yet 
short. 


CHAPTER    III. 

AMEEIOAN  MEBINOS  ESTABLISHED  AS  A  VAEIETY, 

THE    MIXED   LEONESE    OR   JARVIS    MERINOS THE    INFANTADO 

OR   ATWOOD    MERINOS  — THE    PAULAR     OR    RICH    MERINOS 
OTHER     MERINOS. 

THE  MIXED  LEONESE  OR  JARVIS  MERINOS. —  The  origin 
of  Mr.  Jarvis'  flock  has  been  given.  Their  pedigrees  rested 
on  his  own  direct  statements ;  and  his  integrity  and  veracity 
were  never  challenged  by  friend  or  foe.  As  has  been  seen,  he 
mixed  five  families  of  Spanish  sheep,  the  Paulars  considerably 
predominating  in  numbers, —  but  his  son  writes  me  that  for 
the  purpose  of  "accommodating  the  manufacturers"  he  bred 
"  in  the  contrary  direction "  from  the  type  of  the  darker 
colored  and  yolkier  families.*  The  appearance  of  his  sheep 
when  I  first  saw  them,  something  over  twenty  years  since,  I 
thought  plainly  indicated  that  he  had  "accommodated  the 
manufacturers "  by  chiefly  using  rams  of  his  Escurial  family 
or  which  bore  a  large  proportion  of  that  blood.  They  were 
lighter  colored  than  the  original  Spanish  sheep  of  other 
families  and  their  wool  was  finer.  It  was  entirely  free  from 
hardened  yolk,  or  "gum,"  internally  and  externally,  and 
opened  on  a  rosy  skin  with  a  style  and  brilliancy  which 
resembled  the  Saxon.  It  was  longish,  for  those  times,  on  the. 
back  and  sides,  but  shorter  on  the  belly,  and  did  not  cover  the 
head  and  legs  anything  like  as  well  as  those  parts  are  covered 
in  the  improved  sheep  of  the  present  day.  It  was  of  fair 
medium  thickness  on  the  best  animals.  The  form  was  perhaps 
rather  more  compact  than  that  of  the  original  Spanish  sheep, 
but  altogether  it  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  them.  I  think 
that  pi-ior  to  1840,  Mr.  Jarvis  had  begun  to  breed  back 
toward  the  other  strains  of  blood  in  his  flock.  At  about 
that  period  small  and  choice  lots  of  breeding  ewes  were 

*  See  Charles  Jarvis'  letter  to  me  in  my  report  on  "  Fine- Wool  Sheep  Husbandry," 


28  THE    AMERICAN  INFANTADOS. 

occasionally  obtained  from  him  which  yielded  from  4  Ibs.  to 
4£  Ibs  of  washed  wool  per  head.  These  sheep  long  enjoyed 
ereat  celebrity,  and  are  now  represented  in  the  pedigree^  of 
many  excellent  pure  bred  flocks;  but  as  a  distinct  family,  they 
have  mostly  been  merged  in  the  two  next  to  be  described. 

THE  INFANTADO  OK  ATWOOD  MERINO. —  In  1813,  Stephen 
Atwood.  of  Woodbury,  Connecticut,  bought  a  ewe  of  Col. 
David  Humphreys  for  $120.  He  bred  this  ewe  and  her 
descendants  to  rams  in  his  neighborhood  which  he  knew  to 
be  of  pure  Humphreys'  blood,  until  about  1830,  after  which 
period  he  uniformly  used  rams  from  his  own  flock.  This  is 
the  distinct  and  positive  statement  of  a  man  of  conceded  good 
character,  and  has  been  persisted  in  from  a  period  long  before 
the  asserted  facts  would  have  had  any  effect  on  the  reputation 
of  his  flock.  From  1815  to  1824,  and  indeed  down  to  a  much 
later  period,  the  pedigrees  of  "old-fashioned  Merinos,"  as 
they  were  then  termed,  received  very  little  respect  or 
attention ;  and,  in  fact,  I  am  not  aware  that  Mr.  Humphreys' 
importation  enjoyed  any  especial  credit  over  several  other  of 
the  principal  importations,  until  its  reputation  was  reflected 
back  on  it  by  Mr.  Atwood's  own  flock.  Mr.  Atwood, 
moreover,  is  a  purely  practical  man ;  has  been  specially  and 
almost  exclusively  devoted  to  his  sheep ;  and  has  always  acted 
as  his  own  shepherd.  We  have  no  right,  then,  to  doubt 
either  his  sincerity  or  his  accuracy. 

In  1840,  his  sheep  were  not  far  from  the  size  and  form  of 
Mr.  Jarvis'  —  though  I  think  they  were  inclined  to  be  a  little 
flatter  in  the  ribs,  and  perhaps  a  little  deeper  chested.  Their 
wool  was  short,  fine,  even,  well  crimped,  brilliant,  generally 
thick,  and  very  dark  colored  externally  for  that  day.  Some 
of  them  (particularly  among  the  rams,)  had  a  black  external 
.coat  of  hardened  yolk,  which  was  sticky  in  warm  weather 
and  formed  a  stiff  crust  in  cold  weather.  The  inside  yolk 
was  abundant,  and  generally  colorless.  The  wool  was  still 
shorter  on  the  belly,  and  as  with  the  Jarvis  sheep,  did  not 
very  well  cover  the  legs  and  head.  Few  of  them  had  any 
below  the  knees  and  hocks.  Their  skins  were  mellow,  loose 
and  of  a  rich  pink  color.  The  rams  had  a  pendulous  dew-lap 
and  some  of  them  neck-folds,  or  "wrinkles,"  of  moderate 
size.  They  rarely  exhibited  them  on  other  parts  of  the  body, 
and  the  "broad  tail"  and  deep  pendulous  flank  of  the  present 
day,  were  unknown  in  both  sexes.  The  ewes  generally  had 
dew-laps  of  greater  or  lesser  width,  sometimes  dividing  into 


THE  IMPROVED  INFANTADOS.  29 

two  parts  under  the  jaw,  so  as  to  form  a  triangular  cavity  or 
"pouch"  between;  and  there  was  on  most  of  them  a 
horizontal  fold  of  skin  running  across  the  lower  portion  of 
the  bosom  or  front  of  the  brisket, —  which  was  known  as 
"the  cross,"  and  which  modern  breeders  have  developed  into 
that  pendulous  mass  now  sometimes  termed  "the  apron." 

When  the  Spanish  Merinos  came  again  into  credit,  this 
flock  became  a  public  favorite  and  colonies  from  it  were 
rapidly  scattered  throughout  the  United  States,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  State  of  New  York.  Some  of  these  deteriorated, 
but  most  of  them  continued  to  improve.  The  great  and 
leading  improver  of  the  family  has  been  Edwin  Hammond,  of 
Middlebury,  Vermont.  He  made  three  considerable  purchases 
of  Mr.  Atwood's  sheep  between  the  beginning  of  1844  and 
the  close  of  1846  —  in  the  two  last,  getting  the  average  of  the 
flock,  i.  e.,  a  proportionate  number  of  each  quality.*  By  a 
perfect  understanding  and  exquisite  management  of  his 
materials,  this  great  breeder  has  effected  quite  as  marked  an 
improvement  in  the  American  Merino,  as  Mr.  Bakewell 
effected  among  the  long-wooled  sheep  of  England.  He  has 
converted  the  thin,  light-boned,  smallish,  and  imperfectly 
covered  sheep  above  described,  into  large,  round,  low,  strong- 
boned  sheep — models  of  compactness,  and  not  a  few  of  them 
almost  perfect  models  of  beauty,  for  fine-wooled  sheep.  I 
examined  the  flock  nearly  a  week  in  February,  1863.  They 
were  in  very  high  condition,  though  the  ewes  were  fed  only 
hay.  Two  of  these  weighed  about  140  Ibs.  each.  Numbers 
would  have  reached  from  110  Ibs.  to  125  Ibs.  One  of  the  two 
largest  ewes  had  yielded  a  fleece  of  17}  Ibs.,  and  the  other 
14  $  Ibs.  of  unwashed  wool.  The  whole  flock,  usually  about 
200  in  number,  with  the  due  proportion  of  young  and  old  and 
including,  say,  two  per  cent,  of  grown  rams,  and  no  wethers, 
yields  an  average  of  about  10  Ibs.  of  unwashed  wool  per  head. 
The  ram,  "Sweepstakes,"  given  as  the  frontispiece  of  this 
volume,  bred  and  now  owned  by  Mr.  Hammond,  has  yielded 
a  single  year's  fleece  of  unwashed  wool  weighing  27  Ibs:  His 
weight  in  full  fleece  is  about  140  Ibs.  Rams  producing  from 
20  Ibs.  to  24  Ibs.  are  not  unusual  in  the  flock. 

Mr.  Hammond's  sheep  exhibit  no  hardened  yolk  within 
the  wool  and  but  little  externally :  in  nearly  all  of  them  the 
curves  of  the  wool  can  be  traced  to  its  outer  tips.  They  are 

*  In  one  case  he  bought  the  entire  lot  of  ewe  lambs  of  a  year ;  in  another,  one-third 
of  the  old  ewes— Mr.  Atwood  selecting  the  first  and  third,  and  Mr.  Hammond  the 
Becond  of  each  trio.  He  had  partners  in  some  of  his  purchases,  but  there  is  no 
occasion  to  name  them  here. 


30  THE   AMERICAN   PAULAKS. 

dark  colored  because  they  have  abundance  of  liquid  "  circu- 
lating "  yolk,  and  because  they  (like  all  the  leading  breeding 
flocks  of  Vermont,)  are  housed,  not  only  in  winter,  but  from 
Bummer  rain  storms.  The  great  weight  is  made  up  not  by 
the  extra  amount  of  yolk,  but  by  the  extra  length  and 
thickness  of  every  part  of  the  fleece.  In  many  instances  it  is 
nearly  as  long  and  thick  on  the  belly,  legs,*  forehead,  cheeks, 
etc.,  as  on  the  back  and  sides.  The  wool  opens  freely  and 
with  a  good  luster  and  style.  It  is  of  a  high  medium  quality 
and  remarkably  even.  Mr.  Hammond  is  intentionally  breeding 
it  back  to  the  buff  tinge  of  the  original  Spanish  wool.  He 
has  not  specially  cultivated  folds  in  the  skin.  Sweepstakes 
has  more  of  these  than  most  of  his  predecessors  and  has  much 
increased  them  in  the  flock.  Some  of  his  best  ewes  are  nearly 
without  them,  though  all  perhaps  have  dew-laps  and  the 
"cross"  on  the  brisket.  In  every  respect  this  eminent 
breeder  has  directed  his  whole  attention  to  solid  value,  and 
has  never  sacrificed  a  particle  of  it  to  attain  either  points  of 
no  value  or  of  less  value.  He  has  bred  exclusively  from  Mr. 
Atwood's  stock,  sire  and  dam;  and  since  the  rams  originally 
purchased  of  Mr.  Atwood  by  himself  and  associates,  has  only 
used  rams  of  his  own  flock.  The  marked  extent  of  his 
in-and-in  breeding,  will  be  adverted  to  in  the  Chapter  which  I 
shall  devote  to  the  general  subject  of  in-and-in  breeding.  But 
this  has  not  developed  any  delicacy  of  constitution  in  his 
flock.  They  are  every  way  stronger  and  more  robust  sheep 
than  their  predecessors  of  25  years  ago,  bring  forth  larger 
and  stronger  lambs,  and  are  far  better  breeders  and  nui*ses. 

There  are  in  Vermont  and  other  States  a  large  body  of 
spirited  and  intelligent  breeders  whose  flocks  were  founded 
mainly  or  exclusively  on  sheep  purchased  of  Mr.  Hammond. 
Not  a  few  of  them  have  bred  with  distinguished  success.  It 
would  be  justly  considered  invidious  to  mention  the  flocks  of 
a  portion  of  them,  without  mentioning  all  of  equal  merit. 
This  I  am  unable  to  do,  both  because  I  am  unprovided  with  a 
full  list  of  them,  and  because  the  prescribed  limits  of  this 
work  do  not  admit  of  it.  I  have  aimed  to  do  justice  to  all  of 
this  improved  family  of  sheep  at  once,  in  describing  the  flock 
of  its  distinguished  founder. 

THE  PAULAB  OB  RICH  MEEINOS. —  These  sheep  were 
originally  purchased  in  1823,  by  Hon.  Charles  Rich,  M.  C., 

*  I  do  not  mean  to  be  understood  that  it  is  thus  lone  below  the  knees  and  hocks, 
though  it  is  generally  quite  as  long  as  it  ought  to  be  on  the  shanks. 


THE    AMERICAN   PAULARS. 


31 


and  Leonard  Bedell,  of  Shoreham,  Vermont,  of  Andrew  Cock, 
of  Flushing,  Long  Island.  Cock  purchased  all  of  the  original 
stock  and  part  of  the  individual  sheep  sold  to  them,  of  the 
importers.  Their  Spanish  pedigree,  the  authenticity  of  which 


MEKINO    EWE. 


was  attested  by  a  Consular  certificate,  (undoubtedly  Mr. 
Jarvis',  but  that  fact  is  not  now  remembered,)  showed  them  to 
be  Paulars.*  They  have  been  bred  by  John  T.  Rich,  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  his  sons  John  T.  and  Virtulan  Rich,  on  the  old 


*  Cock  delivered  this  certified  pedigree  to  Bedell.  Letters  of  the  late  John  T.  Rich, 
Esq.,  son  of  one  of  the  purchasers,  and  of  the  late  Hon.  S.  H.  Jennison,  ex-Governor  or 
Vermont,  were  published  in  1844,  stating  that  they  had  seen  this  document;  and  both 
gentlemen  remembered  the  ewes  in  the  flock  certified  to  be  of  the  original  importation. 
Gov.  Jennison  says  he  saw  them  often  between  18SM  and  1830.  They  were  very  old 
and  toothless.  The  Hon.  Effingham  Lawrence,  who  resided  in  the  same  town  with 
Cock,  and  who  was  himself  a  distinguished  importer  and  breeder  of  Merinos,  as  well 
as  an  old-school  gentleman,  highly  eminent  for  social  position  and  integrity,  wrote  to 
me  in  1844: — "Andrew  Cock  *  *  was  my  near  neighbor.  We  were  intimate  and 
commenced  laying  the  foundations  of  our  Merino  flocks  about  the  same  time.  I  was 
present  when  he  purchased  most  of  his  sheep,  which  was  in  1811.  He  first  purchased 
two  ewes  at  $1,100  per  head.  They  were  very  fine,  and  of  the  Escurial  flock  imported 
by  Richard  Crowninshield.  His  next  purchase  was  30  of  the  Paular  breed  at  from  $50 
to  $100  per  head.  He  continued  to  purchase  of  the  different  importations  until  he  run 
them  up  to  about  eighty,  always  selecting  them  with  great  care.  This  was  the 
foundation  of  A.  Cock's  flock,  nor  did  he  ever  purchase  any  but  pure  blooded  sheep 
to  my  knowledge  or  belief.  Andrew  Cock  was  an  attentive  breeder ;  saw  well  to  his 
business;  and  was  of  unimpeachable  character.  His  certificate  of  the  kind  and 
purity  of  blood  I  should  implicitly  rely  on.  I  recollect  of  his  selling  sheep  to  Leonard 
Bedell,  of  Vermont."  Much  other  testimony  sustaining  the  pedigree  might  be  given. 


32  THE  IMPROVED  PAULARS. 

homestead  in  Shoreham,  down  to  the  present  day,  without  the 
least  admixture  of  other  blood  than  pure  Spanish,  and  with 
very  little  crossing  with  other  Spanish  or  American  families. 

These  sheep,  in  1840,  were  heavy,  short -legged,  broad 
animals,  full  in  the  quarters,  strong-boned,  with  thick,  short 
necks  and  thick  coarse  heads.  The  ewes  had  deep  and  some- 
times plaited  dew-laps  and  folds  of  moderate  size  about  the 
neck.  The  rams  had  larger  ones.  They  were  darker  exter- 
nally than  the  Jarvis  sheep,  but  not  so  much  so  as  the  Atwood 
sheep — indicating  that  their  wool  contained  more  yolk  than 
the  former  and  less  than  the  latter.  The  wool  was  longer 
than  that  of  either  of  the  other  families,  very  thick  and 
covered  them  better  on  the  belly,  legs  and  head.  But  it  was 
inferior  in  fineness,  evenness  and  style.  It  was  quite  coarse 
on  the  thigh,  and  hairs  were  occasionally  seen  on  the  neck 
folds.  The  lambs  were  often  covered  with  hair  when  yeaned, 
and  their  legs  and  ears  were  marked  by  patches  of  tan  color 
which  subsequently  disappeared  except  on  the  ears,  where  it 
continued  to  show  faintly.  They  were  better  nurses  and 
hardier  than  either  of  the  other  families.  I  have  remarked  in 
a  former  publication  that  "they  were  precisely  the  negligent 
farmer's  sheep."  They  encountered  short  keep,  careless  treat- 
ment of  all  kinds,  exposure  to  autumnal  storms  and  winter 
gales,  with  a  degree  of  impunity  which  was  unexampled. 
Their  lambs  came  big,  bony  and  strong,  and  did  not  suifer 
much  if  they  were  dropped  in  a  snow  bank. 

In  1842  and  1843  this  flock  was  bred  to  a  Jarvis  ram  — 
peculiarly  dark,  thick  and  heavy  fleeced  and  compact  in  form 
for  one  of  ^  his  family— the  object  of  Mr.  Rich  being  to  avoid 
breeding  in-and-in  and  to  improve  the  quality  of  his  wool. 
For  the  same  object,  and  to  increase  the  yolkness  of  the  wool, 
a  dip  or  two  of  Atwood  blood  has  been  since  taken;  but  it 
has  always  been  made  a  point  to  breed  back  after  taking  these 
crosses,  so  as  essentially  to  preserve  the  blood  and  distinctive 
characteristics  of  the  original  family.  The  Messrs.  Rich 
have  succeeded  in  all  these  objects  and  have  kept  up  well 
with  the  rapid  current  of  modern  improvement.  Their  sheep 
are  not  so  large  nor  do  they  yield  so  much  wool  per  head  as 
the  improved  Infantados,  but  they  possess  symmetrical  forms 
which  are  remarkable  for  compactness.  The  body  is  shortish, 
and  very  thick,  with  their  ancient  good  fore  and  hind  quarters ; 
and  their  heads,  though  thick  and  short,  have  lost  their  coarse- 
ness. Their  fleeces  are  even  and  good.  But  that  merit  which 
gives  them  their  great  popularity  in  Vermont  and  elsewhere, 


OTHEE   MERINO   FAMILIES.  33 

is  their  adaptation  to  thin,  scant  herbage,  and  to  their  qualities 
as  "working  flocks."  They  demand  no  extra  care  or  keep 
to  develop  their  qualities,  are  always  lively  and  alert;  and 
though  gentle  and  perfectly  free  from  restlessness  of  tempera- 
ment, they  are  ready  to  rove  far  and  near  to  obtain  their  food. 
And  for  all  they  consume  they  make  the  most  ample  returns. 
While  they  will  pay  for  care,  they  will  thrive  with  but  little 
care.  In  a  word,  they  remain,  par  excellence,  the  negligent 
farmer's  sheep. 

The  ewe,  the  .portrait  of  which  is  given  on  page  31,  is  a 
three  year  old  of  this  family,  and  is  one  of  a  small  number  of 
equal  appearance  and  excellence,  which  I  bought  of  the  Messrs. 
Rich  a  year  since.  Her  second  fleece,  when  she  was  not  so 
large  as  a  high-kept  yearling,  and  when  she  had  not  been 
housed  before  autumn,  weighed  10  Ibs.  unwashed.  Having 
bred  both  these  and  the  Infantados  for  years,  and  being  now 
about  equally  interested  in  both  the  improved  families,  I  trust 
I  can  speak  of  them  with  impartiality;  and  I  may  here  add 
that  I  also  described  Mr.  Jarvis'  sheep  on  ample  personal 


OTHER  MERIXO  FAMILIES. — There  were  in  184,0,  a  few 
small  Merino  flocks  descended  from  pure  Spanish  importations, 
and  derived  from  other  sources  than  the  foregoing,  scattered 
very  thinly  through  the  States  lying  west  of  New  England. 
Like  the  best  Infantados  and  Paulars  of  that  day,  some  of  them 
averaged  about  4J  Ibs.  of  washed  wool  to  the  fleece.  I  have 
been  unable  to  obtain  any  authentic  portraits  of  known 
Infantados  or  Paulars  of  that  period.  The  drawing  from 
which  the  cut  given  on  the  following  page  was  taken,  was 
made  in  1 840,  by  Francis  Rotch,  Esq.,  of  Morris,  (then  called 
Louisville,)  N.  Y.,  one  of  the  most  eminent  and  skillful  cattle 
and  sheep  breeders  in  the  United  States,  and  remarkable  then 
as  since  for  the  accuracy  and  spirit  of  his  drawings  of  animals. 
The  cut  is  a  ewe  of  his  own  flock  of  thirty  breeding  ewes, 
which  had  been  selected  with  much  care  from  difierent  flocks 
in  New  England ;  and  this  one  was  then  regarded  as  a  model. 
She  is  rounder  in  the  rib,  broader  and  rounder  in  the  thigh 
and  fuller  in  the  brisket  than  was  common  among  the  Merinos 
of  that  day.  The  illustration  will  show  the  changes  which 

*  The  account  which  I  have  given  of  the  characteristics,  &c.,  of  these  families  20 
years  ago,  was  submitted,  in  substantially  the  same  form,  to  some  of  the  most 
prominent  present  breeders  of  each  variety,  including  Mr.  Hammond  and  Mr.  Rich, 
preparatory  to  its  publication  in  my  Report  on  Fine- Wool  Husbandry  in  1862,  and  it 
received  their  unanimous  concurrence.  See  that  Report,  p.  53. 
2* 


34 


OTHEB   MEBLNO   FAMILIES. 


have  taken  place  in  American  Merino  sheep  during  the  last 
twenty -three  years. 


MERINO    EWE. 

Other  persons  in  New  York,  (including  myself,)  and 
several  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  perhaps  some  other  States, 
owned  pure  Spanish  flocks,  not  differing  essentially  in  quality 
from  those  of  Connecticut  and  Vermont.  But  while  some 
flock-masters  in  New  England,  and  particularly  in  Vermont, 
made  ram  breeding  a  specialty,  those  of  the  Middle  and 
Western  States  generally  devoted  their  attention  to  wool- 
growing,  and  soon  began  to  draw  their  rams  from  the  former 
sources.  The  consequence  has  been  that  they  neither 
preserved  nor  established  distinct  families,  among  their  early 
sheep ;  and  those  that  now  have  pure  and  distinct  families  ol 
the  improved  American  Merinos  (and  their  number  greatly 
exceeds  that  of  the  breeders  of  pure  sheep  in  New  England,) 
have  generally  obtained  the  origin  of  their  flocks,  within  the 
last  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  from  Vermont,  or  from  Mr. 
Atwood's  flock  in  Connecticut.  Consequently,  there  is  not 
within  my  knowledge  any  other  separate  families  that  require 
a  special  description. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

LATER  IMPORTATIONS   OF   FINE-WOOLED  SHEEP    INTO 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

FRENCH   AND   SILESIAN   MERINOS    INTRODUCED. 

FRENCH  MERINOS  INTRODUCED. — The  first  importation  of 
French  Merinos  into  the  United  States,  since  they  have 
assumed  those  characteristics  which  constitute  them  a  separate 
variety,  was  made  in  1840,  by  D.  C.  Collins,  of  Hartford, 
Conn.  He  purchased  fourteen  ewes  and  two  rams  from  the 
royal  flock  at  Rambouillet,  which  were  esteemed  of  such  choice 
quality  that  one  of  the  rams  ("  Grandee")  and  several  of  the 
ewes  "  could  only  be  procured  after  they  had  been  used  in  the 
national  flock  as  far  as  it  could  be  done  with  advantage." 
Grandee,  says  A.  B.  Allen,  then  Editor  of  the  American  Agri- 
culturist, who  attended  Mr.  Collins'  sheep-shearing  in  1843, 
was  3  feet  8j  inches  long  from  the  setting  on  of  the  horns  to 
the  end  of  the  rump  ;  his  height  over  the  rump  and  shoulders 
was  2  feet  5  inches,  and  his  weight  in  good  fair  condition 
about  150  Ibs.  The  ewes  were  proportionably  large.  At 
three  years  old,  in  France,  Grandee  produced  a  fleece  of  14  Ibs. 
of  unwashed  wool.  His  fleece  was  suffered  to  grow  from 
1839  to  1841,  two  years,  and  weighed  26  Ibs.  3  oz.  clean 
unwashed  wool.  One  year's  fleece  in  1842  weighed  12f 
Ibs.  In  1843  the  ewes  yielded  an  average  of  6  Ibs.  9  oz.  of 
unwashed  wool.  Mr.  Allen  commended  their  constitutions 
and  longevity ;  stated  that  they  had  large  loose  skins  full  of 
folds,  especially  about  the  neck  and  below  it  on  the  shoulders, 
and  not  unfrequently  over  the  whole  body;  and  that  they 
were  well  covered  with  wool  on  every  part  down  to  the  hoofs. 
Their  fleeces  opened  of  a  brilliant  creamy  color,  on  a  skin  of 
rich  pink,  and  was  soft,  glossy,  wavy,  and  very  even  over  the 
whole  body.  It  was  exceedingly  close  and  compact,  and  had 
a  yolk  free  from  gum  and  easily  liberated  by  washing.* 

*  See  Am.  Agriculturist,  vol.  2,  p.  98.    I  mostly  use  Mr.  Allen's  language. 


FRENCH    MERINOS   INTRODUCED. 


The  late  Mr.  Taintor,  of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  commenced 
importing  French  Merinos  in  1846,  and  continued  it  through 
several  succeeding  years.  He  selected  mostly  from  private 
flocks  like  those  of  M.  Cughnot  and  M.  Gilbert,  which  had 
been  bred  much  larger  and  heavier  fleeced  than  the  royal  one. 
Having  made  some  inquiries  of  him,  in  1862,  in  relation  to  the 
sheep  of  his  importations,  he  referred  me  to  John  D.  Patterson 
of  Westfield,  New  York,  who  had  purchased  very  extensively 
of  him  and  who  owned  as  good  animals  as  had  ever  been 
imported.  That  gentleman  wrote  to  me : 

"  In  answer  to  your  inquiry  as  to  the  weight  of  fleece  of 
the  French  sheep  and  their  live  weight,  I  can  only  reply  by 
giving  the  result  of  my  own  flock.  My  French  rams  have 
generally  sheared  from  18  to  24  pounds  of  an  even  year's 
growth,  and  unwashed,  but  some  of  them,  with  high  keeping 
and  light  use,  have  sheared  more,  and  my  yearling  rams  have 
generally  sheared  from  15  to  22  pounds  each.  My  breeding 
and  yearling  ewes  have  never  averaged  as  low  as  15  pounds 
each,  unwashed,  taking  the  entire  flock.  Some  of  them  have 
sheared  over  20  pounds  each,  but  these  were  exceptions, 
being  large  and  in  high  condition.  The  live  weight  of  any 
animal  of  course  depends  very  much  upon  its  condition.  My 
yearling  ewes  usually  range  from  90  to  130  pounds  each,  and 
the  grown  ewes  from  130  to  170  pounds  each,  and  I  have  had 
some  that  weighed  over  200  pounds  each ;  but  these  would  be 
above  the  average  size  and  in  high  flesh.  My  yearling  rams 
usually  weigh  from  120  to  180  pounds  each,  and  my  grown 
rams  from  180  to  250  pounds  each — some  of  them  have 
weighed  over  300  pounds  each,  but  these  were  unusually  large 
and  in  high  flesh  and  in  full  fleece.  I  have  had  ram  lambs 
weigh  120  pounds  at  seven  months  old,  but  they  were  more 
thrifty,  fleshy  and  larger  than  usual  at  that  age." 

I  have  seen  many  sheep  of  Mr.  Taintor's  importation  and 
their  direct  descendants.  -  A  large  portion  of  them  possessed 
good  forms  considering  their  great  size.  Their  wool  was  not 
so  fine  as  Mr.  Collins',  but  of  a  fair  medium  quality  and  pretty 
even.  Their  fleeces  were  very  light  colored  externally,  com- 
pared with  those  of  any  American  family,  owing  undoubtedly 
to  their  relative  deficiency  in  yolk  and  to  the  more  soluble 
character  of  their  yolk.  Unless  housed  with  care  from  both 
summer  and  winter  storms,  they  were  about  as  destitute  of 
yolk  before  washing  as  a  considerable  class  of  American 
Merinos  are  after  it.  Under  common  treatment,  then,  their 
fleeces  are  greatly  lighter  in  proportion  to  bulk  than  those  of 


FRENCH    MERINOS.  37 

the  latter,  and  correspondingly  unprofitable  in  a  market  where 
no  adequate  discrimination  is  made  between  clean  and  dirty 
wools. 

"  The  only  really  weak  point  of  the  best  French  Merino  as 
a  pure  wool  producing  animal,  is  the  want  of  that  hardiness 
which  adapts  it  to  our  changeable  climate  and  to  our  systems 
of  husbandry.  In  this  particular  it  is  to  the  American  Merino 
what  the  great  pampered  Short-Horn  of  England  is  to  the 
little,  hardy,  black  cattle  of  the  Scotch  Highlands — what  the 
high-fed  carriage  horse,  sixteen  hands  high,  groomed  and 
attended  in  a  wainscoted  stable,  is  to  the  Sheltie  that  feeds 
among  the  moors  and  mosses,  and  defies  the  tempests  of  the 
Orkneys.  The  French  sheep  has  not  only  been  highly  kept 
and  housed  from  storm  and  rain  and  dew  for  generations,  but 
it  has  been  bred  aAvay  from  the  normal  type  of  its  race.  The 
Dishley  sheep  of  Mr.  Bakewell  are  not  a  more  artificial  variety, 
and  all  highly  artificial  varieties  become  comparatively  delicate 
in  constitution."* 

The  French  Merino,  if  well  selected,  has  always  proved 
profitable  in  this  country,  where  the  French,  or  an  equally 
fostering  system  of  management,  has  been  faithfully  kept  up — 
but  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  buyers-have  not  kept  up  such 
a  system,  and  consequently  their  sheep  have  rapidly  deterio- 
rated. Where  the  rams  have  been  worked  hard  and  exposed 
to  rough  vicissitudes  of  weather,  they  have  frequently 
perished  before  the  close'  of  the  first  year.  These  facts 
account  for  that  reaction  which  has  taken  place  against  this 
variety  in  the  minds  of  many  of  our  farmers.  And  the  tide  of 
prejudice  has  been  enormously  swelled  by  the  impositions  of 
a  class  of  importers.  It  creates  a  smile  to  recall  to  memory 
the  great,  gaunt,  shaggy  monsters,  with  hair  on  their  necks 
and  thighs  projecting  three  or  four  inches  beyond  the  wool — 
mongrels  probably  of  the  second  or  third  cross  between 
French  Merinos  and  some  long-wooled  and  huge-bodied 
variety  of  mutton  sheep — which  were  picked  up  in  France 
and  hawked  about  this  country  by  greedy  speculators,  who 
knew  that,  at  that  time,  size  and  "  wrinkles"  would  sell  any 
thing ! 

I  regret  that  Mr.  Patterson's  absence  in  California  has 
prevented  me  from  obtaining  original  drawings  of  some  of 

*I  quote  this  paragraph  from  my  Report  on  Fine -Wool  Husbandry,  1862, 
because  Mr.  Taintor,  the  Messrs.  Allen,  and  several  other  distinguished  breeders  and 
advocates  of  French  Sheep,  wrote  to  me  expressing  their  entire  satisfaction  with  my 
description  of  that  breed  in  the  Report;  and  the  above  quotation  may  therefore  be  set 
down  as  res  adjudicata. 


38 


SILESIAN   MERINOS    INTRODUCED. 


these  sheep  in  time  for  this  volume.  I  have  not  known  where 
else  to  look  for  pure  and  favorable  specimens  of  the  variety. 
Colonies  of  French  Sheep  have  been  planted  in  the  mild 
climate  of  the  South,  in  California,  and  in  other  situations  the 
most  favorable  to  them.  I  cannot  but  hope  that  they  will 
yet  acclimatize  into  a  valuable  variety  for  portions  of  OUT 
country.  They  are  good  mothers.  They  often  raise  twins. 
As  a  fine-wool  mutton  sheep  they  should  stand  unrivaled. 


SILESIAN  MERINO   BAM. 

INTRODUCTION  or  SILESIAN  MERINOS.— The  following 
account  of  the  introduction  of  this  variety  and  of  its  charac^ 
tenstics,  is  contained  in  a  letter  from  the  principal  importer, 
William  Chamberlain,  of  Red  Hook,  New  York.  He  wrote 
to  me  m  January,  1862: 

"Your  favor  dated  24th  ult.  is  received,  and  it  gives  me 
pleasure  to  furnish  the  required  information  in  regard  to  my 
flock  of  Silesian  sheep,  with  full  liberty  to  make  such  use  of 
the  facts  as  you  please. 


SILESIAN   MERINOS.  39 

"  1st.  I  have  made  importations  for  myself  and  George 
Campbell  of  Silesian  sheep,  as  follows : 

In  the  year  1851,  say 40  ewes  and  15  bucks. 

do.         1863,  do 27       do.          4    do. 

do.         1854,  do Ill       do.        13    do. 

do.         1856,  do 34       do.          2    do. 

212  34    do. 

"In  1854  I  visited  Silesia  and  made  the  purchases  myself. 

"  2d.  The  sheep  were  bred  by  Louis  Fischer,  of  Wirchen- 
blatt,  Silesia,  except  a  few  which  were  bred  by  his  near 
neighbor,  Baron  Weidebach,  who  used  Fischer's  breeders. 

"3d.  Their  origin  is  Spain.  In  1811  Ferdinand  Fischer, 
the  father  of  Louis  Fischer,  the  present  owner  of  the  flock, 
visited  Spain  himself  and  purchased  one  hundred  of  the  best 
ewes  he  could  find  of  the  Infantado  flocks,  and  four  bucks 
from  the  Negretti  flock,  and  took  them  home  with  him  to 
Silesia,  and  up  to  the  present  day  they  have  not  been  crossed 
with  any  other  flocks  or  blood,  but  they  have  been  crossed 
within  the  families.  The  mode  pursued  is  to  number  every 
sheep  and  give  the  same  number  to  all  her  increase ;  an 
exact  record  is  kept  in  books,  and  thus  Mr.  Fischer  is  enabled 
to  give  the  pedigree  of  every  sheep  he  owns,  running  back  to 
1811,  which  is  positive  proof  of  their  entire  purity  of  blood. 
The  sheep  are  perhaps  not  as  large  as  they  would  be  if  a  little 
other  blood  were  infused ;  but  Mr.  F.  claims  that  entire  purity 
of  blood  is  indispensably  necessary  to  insure  uniformity 
of  improvement  when  crossed  on  ordinary  wool  growers' 
flocks ;  and  such'  is  the  general  opinion  of  wool  growers  in 
Germany,  Poland  and  Russia,  which  enables  Mr.  Fischer  to 
sell  at  high  prices  as  many  bucks  and  ewes  as  he  can  spare, . 
and  as  he  and  his  father  have  enjoyed  this  reputation  for  so 
many  years,  I  am  fully  of  opinion  that  he  is  right.  From  these 
facts  you  will  observe  that  my  sheep  are  pure  Spanish. 

"4th.  Medium  aged  ewes  shear  from  8  to  11  pounds; 
bucks  from  12  to  16  pounds;  but  in  regard  to  ewes,  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  they  drop  their  lambs  from  November 
to  February,  which  lightens  the  clip  somewhat.  I  do  not 
wash  my  sheep. 

"  oth.  I  have  sold  my  clip  from  30  to  45  cents,  according 
to  the  market. 

"  6th.  We  have  measured  the  wool  on  quite  a  number  of 
sheep,  and  find  it  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  long,  say 
eight  months'  growth,  but  I  have  no  means  of  knowing  what 
it  would  be  at  twelve  months'  growth. 


40  SILESIAN   MERINOS. 

"  7th.  Their  external  color  is  dark.  The  wool  has  oil  but 
no  gum  whatever,  they  haying  been  bred  so  as  to  make  them 
entirely  free  from  gum — German  manufacturers  always  insist- 
ing on  large  deductions  in  the  price  of  wool  where  gum  is 
found. 

"  8th.  As  above  stated,  the  Silesians  have  oil,  but  no  gum 
like  those  which  are  sold  for  Spanish  and  French,  and  the  oil  is 
white  and  free;  the  wool  does  not  stick  together. 

"  9th.  We  have  weighed  five  CAVCS.  Three  dropped  their 
lambs  last  month ;  the  other  two  have  not  yet  come  in.  Their 
Aveights  are  115,  140,  130,  115  and  127  pounds;  three  bucks 
weighing  severally  145,  158,  155  pounds;  one  yearling  buck 
weighing  130  pounds;  but  this  would  be  more  than  an 
average  weight  of  my  flock  when  young  and  very  old  sheep 
were  brought  into  the  average.  My  sheep  are  only  in  fair 
condition,  as  I  feed  no  grain.  They  have  beets,  which  I 
consider  very  'good  for  milk,  but  not  so  good  for  flesh  as 
grain. 

"10th  and  llth.  For  the  first  time  my  shepherd  has 
measured  some  sheep :  ewes  from  24  to  28  inches  high,  fore- 
leg 11  to  12  inches ;  bucks,  27  to  28  inches  high,  fore-leg  12 
to  13  £  inches. 

"  12th.  We  find  the  Silesians  hardy,  much  more  so  than  a 
small  flock  of  coarse  mutton  sheep  that  I  keep  and  treat  quite 
as  well  as  I  do  the  Silesians. 

"  13th.  They  are  first-rate  breeders  and  nurses. 

"  Some  of  these  facts  I  have  given  on  the  statement  of  my 
shepherd,  CarlHeyne,  who  was  one  of  Mr.  Fischer's  shepherds, 
and  came  home  with  the  sheep  I  purchased  in  1854,  and  a  man 
whose  honor  and  integrity  I  can  fully  indorse. 

"  My  sheep  do  not  deteriorate  in  this  country,  but  the  wool 
rather  grows  finer  without  any  reduction  in  the  weight  of 
fleece." 

In  a  subsequent  letter  Mr.  Chamberlain  wrote  to  me : 

;'  Carl  has  weighed  a  few  more  of  our  Silesian  sheep,  and 
their  weights  are  as  follows:  Four  full  aged  ewes,  respect- 
ively, 120,  125,  107,  107  pounds;  two  ewe  lambs,  90,  87 
pounds ;  two  two-year  old  bucks,  124, 122  pounds ;  one  three- 
fourths  blood,  143  pounds. 

"  I  attended  to  the  weighing  and  selection  myself,  and  am 
of  opinion  that  our  ewes  from  three  to  eight  years  old  averno-e 
fully  115  pounds,  say  before  dropping  their  lambs.  Our 
younger  sheep  do  not  weigh  as  much.  Silesians  do  not  get 
their  full  size  till  four  years  of  age,  and  after  eight  or  nine 


SILESIAN   MERINOS. 


41 


years  they  are  not  as  heavy.  *  *  *  Mr.  Fischer's  sheep 
are  large,  say  larger  than  any  flock  of  Vermont  Merinos  that 
I  have  seen.  *  *  *  I  have  the  lambs  come  from 
November  to  March,  because  Carl  says  it  is  the  best  way,  and 
I  let  him  do  as  he  pleases.  *  *  *  The  ewes  do  not  give 

r' '  3  as  much  wool,  but  I  think  the  lambs  make  stronger 
p,  as  they  get  a  good  start  the  first  summer." 
The  Silesian  ram,  a  portrait  of  which  is  given  on  page  38, 
was  bred  by  Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  is  now  the  property  of 
James    Geddes,  of  Fairmount,   N.   Y.      He  is  regarded   as 
an  extraordinarily  valuable  animal  of  the  family.     He  is  large 
in  size  and  yields  an  unusually  heavy  fleece. 

The  following   cut  represents   a  group   of  Silesian  ewes 
imported  by  Mr.  Chamberlain. 


GROUP    OF    SILESIAN   EAVES. 

I  visited  Mr.  Chamberlain's  flock  in  February,  1863. 
Most  of  the  lambs  were  then  dropped  and  the  ewes  appeared 
to  be  excellent  mothers.  They  were  fed  beets  but  no  grain. 
They  are  housed  constantly  in  cold  weather,  except  when  let 
out  to  drink — housed  nights  throughout  the  year,  and  from  all 
summer  rain  storms.  From  the  limited  quantity  of  his 
available  pasturage,  Mr.  Chamberlain  restricts  them  far  more 
than  is  usual  in  that  particular  in  summer,  but  allows  them  to 


42  SILESIAN   MERINOS. 

eat  what  hay  they  wish  at  night.  He  considers  this  more 
profitable  than  devoting  more  of  his  high-priced  lands  to 
pasturage,  and  quite  as  well  if  not  better  for  the  sheep. 

The  carcasses  of  his  sheep  are  rftund  and  symmetrical. 
Some  of  them  are  taller  in  proportion  to  weight  than  is 
desirable — because  German  breeders  pay  less  attention  to  this' 
point — but  this  tendency  could  be  readily  changed  without 
going  out  of  the  flock  for  rams.  The  wool  is  of  admirable 
quality  and  uniformity,  and  opens  most  brilliantly  on  a  mellow, 
rose-colored  skin.  The  fleece  is  very  dark  externally. 

Wherever  it  is  most  profitable  to  grow  very  fine  wool,  this 
variety,  or  rather  this  family,  ought  to  stand  unrivaled. 
Whether  they  have  ever  been  tested  under  the  common  rough 
usage  of  our  country  I  am  not  advised.  There  is  nothing  in 
their  forms  or  general  appearance  to  indicate  that  they  would 
not  generally  conform  to  it.  They  would  doubtless  lose 
much  of  their  external  color  and  early  maturity,  and  perhaps 
something  of  their  ultimate  size.  But  the  same  would  be 
true  of  all  the  summer-housed,  high  kept  and  carefully 
tended  Merinos  of  our  country. 


CHAPTER    V. 

BEITISH  AND   OTHEK   LONG  AND    MIDDLE  -  WO  OLED 
SHEEP  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

LEICESTEES,  COTSWOLDS,  LINCOLNS,  NEW  OXFORDSHIRES, 
BLACK-PACED  SCOTCH,  CHEVIOT,  FAT-RUMPED,  BROAD-TAILED, 
PERSIAN  AND  CHINESE  SHEEP. 

No  breed  of  domestic  sheep  were  indigenous  to  the  United 
States ;  nor  is  it  deemed  necessary  here  to  attempt  to  trace 
the  origin  or  subsequent  history  of  the  various  breeds  and 
families,  imported  by  our  ancestors  when  they  colonized  this 
Continent,  and  which,  being  mixed  promiscuously  together, 
constituted  what  it  became  customary  to  speak  of  as  the 
"  Native  Sheep,"  when  the  Merino  and  the  improved  British 
breeds  were  afterwards  introduced.  They  were  generally 
lank,  gaunt,  slow -feeding,  coarse,  short-wooled,  hardy, 
prolific  animals — not  well  adapted  to  any  special  purpose  of 
wool  or  mutton  production.  A  family  of  them,  the  Otter 
Sheep — so  termed  from  their  short,  crooked,  rickety  legs,  a 
mere  perpetuated  monstrosity — and  the  descendants  of  some 
English  long-wools,  on  Smith's  Island,  imagined  by  a  few 
persons  to  be  indigenous  there — are  the  only  sub-varieties 
which  have  ever  attracted  special  notice ;  and  they  were 
wholly  unworthy  of  it. 

Not  having  bred  English  sheep  of  late  years,  and  never 
having  bred  them  extensively,  I  can  entertain  little  doubt  that 
I  shall  give  more  satisfaction  to  the  readers"  of  this  volume  if 
I  select  descriptions  of  them  from  British  and  American 
sources  of  recognized  authority. 

THE  LEICESTER  SHEEP.* — It  is  with  profound  pleasure  that 
I  am  enabled  to  trace  the  first  probable  importation  into  the 

*  I  leave  off  the  prefix  "  New,"  because  these  sheep  have  altogether  superseded 
the  parent  stock,  so  as  to  be  generally  denominated  "  the  Leicester."  And  they  are 
so  denominated  in  the  prize  lists  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England. 


44  LEICESTEKS   INTRODUCED. 

United  States  of  improved  English  Sheep,  if  not  of  improved 
sheep  of  any  kind,  to  that  great  man,  first  in  the  arts  of  peace 
as  well  as  war,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON.  Livingston,  writing 
in  1809,  says  of  the  "  Arlington  Long-Wooled  Sheep"  that 
they  were  "  derived  from  the  stock"  of  General  Washington 
— being  bred  by  his  step-son,  Mr.  Custis,  from  a  Persian 
ram  and  BaJcewett  ewes.  Gen.  Washington  died  near  the 
close  of  1799.* 

A  Mr.  Lax,  who  resided  on  Long  Island,  "smuggled" 
some  Leicesters  into  the  United  States  not  far  from  1810; 
and  from  these  Christopher  Dunn,  of  Albany,  New  York, 
obtained  the  origin  of  his  long  celebrated  flock.f  During  the 
war  of  1812  with  England,  some  choice  Leicesters,  on  their 
way  to  Canada,  were  captured  by  one  of  our  privateers,  and 
sold  at  auction  in  New  York,  and  thus  became  scattered 
throughout  the  country.  Some  sheep  of  this  family  were  also 
early  introduced  by  Captain  Beanes,  of  New  Jersey.  J 

The  elaborate  descriptions  of  the  Leicesters,  by  Youatt 
and  Spooncr,  have  been  made  so  familiar  to  American  readers, 
that  I  shall  use  that  of  Mr.  John  Wilson,  Professor  of  Agri- 
culture in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  in  a  paper  "  On  the 
Various  Breeds  of  Sheep  in  Great  Britain,"  published  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  in 
1856: 


*  Livingston  (see  his  Essay  on  Sheep,  p.  58,)  does  not  expressly  say  that  Gen. 
Washington  introduced  the  "  Bakewells,"  but  this  is  to  be  inferred  from  his  state- 
ment that  the  Arlington  Sheep  "were  derived  from  his  stock,"  without  making  an 
exception  of  the  Bakewells.  Mr.  Livingston  speaks  of  the  Arlington's  as  an  existing 
family,  when  he  wrote.  I  have  not  Mr.  Custis's  pamphlet  before  me  from  which  he 
appears  to  have  derived  his  facts. 

t  He  commenced  crossing  it  with  a  CotswoJd  ram  in  1832,  and  from  that  period  it 
became  a  grade  flock  between  the  two  families.  -But  it  was  an  excellent  one.  His 
wethers  weighed  35  Ibs.  per  quarter  and  carried  8  Ibs.  of  wool  per  head.  His  first 
Cotswold  ram  weighed  alive  250  Ibs.,  and  yielded  at  one  shearing  15K  Ibs.  of  wool  14 
inches  long.  In  1835  he  sold  ewes  from  $12  to  $15  a  head,  and  rams  from  $30  to  $50  a 
head  Several  eminent  flocks  in  the  vicinity,  like  those  of  Mr.  Duane  and  Mr.  North, 
S\™  t  vne(r,a  y-<  K  &c->  originated  from  these.  I  have  obtained  most  of  my  facts 
about  Mr.  Dunn  s  sheep  from  a  communication  signed  B.  in  the  Albany  Cultivator, 
rcn  laSo  It  was  undoubtedly  written  by  Caleb  N.  Bement— entirely  reliable 
authority ;  but  whoever  wrote  the  article,  Judge  Buell,  then  editor  of  the  Cultivator, 
who  was  perfectly  conversant  with  Mr.  Dunn  and  his  flock,  would  not  have  pnbli-hr.l 
any  erroneous  statements  in  regard  to  either;  and  had  any  errors  crept  into  his 
columns  by  ovors,sht.  he  would  have  promptly  corrected  them* 

f  n«  •  "'ilh?m  H-  •50tham,  m  a  communication  to  the  Cultivator  in  1840,  states  the 
following  facts  of  six  wethers  bred  and  fed  by  Mr.  Dunn  that  year.  The  heaviest 
weighed  210  Ibs.  and  the  fat  on  the  ribs  measured  5tf  inches.  The  thickness  of  fat  on 
the  smallest  was  4%  inches  They  were  sold  to  Mr.  Kirkpatrick  for  $22  a  head,  and 

abouTTo f  Ita !  each1nyweighet.market  *"  ™V>  C6DtS  a  pOUnd'    The  fleeCCS  averaged 
es  also  introduced  Te«swaters  and  South  Downs,  but  they  were  not 
ct  from  the  surrounding  varieties  and  families.    It  has  been  said  that 
W6re  mcluded  amonS the  8heeP  captured,  as  above  stated,  by  a  priva- 


LEICESTER    SHEEP. 


45 


LEICESTER    RAM. 

"  It  was  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  when  Mr. 
Bakewell,  of  Dishley,  in  Leicestershire,  began  his  experiments 
in  the  improvement  of  the  breed  of  long-wooled  sheep,  at  that 
time  common  to  the  midland  counties.  The  old  Leicesters 
were  then  considered  as  possessing  many  valuable  properties ; 
at  the  same  time  they  possessed  many  defects.  These 
defects  Bakewell  sought  by  a  judicious  crossing  with  other 
breeds  to  remedy,  while  at  the  same  time  he  retained  the 
good  points  of  the  original  breed.  Up  to  this  period  the 
great  object  of  breeders  seems  to  have  been  confined  to  the 
production  of  animals  of  the  largest  size  possible,  and  carrying 
the  heaviest  fleece.  The  old  Leicesters  are  described  as  large, 
heavy,  coarse-grained  animals,  the  meat  having  but  little 
flavor  and  no  delicacy — the  carcass  was  long  and  thin,  flat- 
sided,  with  large  bones  on  thick  rough  legs.  The  fleece  was 
heavy  and  long,  and  of  coarse  quality.  The  sheep  were  slow 
feeders,  and  when  sent  to  market  at  two  and  three  years  old, 
weighed  about  100  to  120  Ibs.  each.  Such  were  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  stock  upon  which  Bakewell  commenced  his 
improved  system  of  breeding.  Recognizing  the  relation 


46  LEICESTER   SHEEP. 

which  exists  between  the  form  of  an  animal  and  its  physical 
tendencies,  he  sought  to  cross  his  sheep  with  such  breeds  as  he 
considered  would  be  most  likely  to  insure  those  points  in  the 
animal  frame  which  were  defective  in  the  old  breed,  and  thus 
to  introduce  an  aptitude  to  lay  on  the  largest  possible  amount 
both  of  flesh  and  fat  in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  and  at  the 
least  expenditure  of  food.  The  fleece  too  was  not- forgotten, 
as  that  would  necessarily  share  in  the  general  improvement  of 
the  animal.  *  *  *  *  *  * 

"In  order  to  obtain  a  permanent  character  to  his  breed, 
after  he  had  by  continued  crossing  secured  all  those  points 
he  considered  desirable,  Bakewell  carried  on  his  breeding 
with  his  own  blood,  and  did  not  scruple  to  use  animals  closely 
allied  to  each  other.  This  system,  adhered  to  more  or  less 
during  a  course  of  years  by  his  successors  and  by  later 
breeders,  while  sustaining  the  purity  of  the  breed,  had 
the  effect  of  lessening  its  value  to  the  -farmer.  It  gradually 
exhibited  a  weakened  constitution,  became  reduced  in  size 
and  more  delicate  in  form — the  ewes  were  less  prolific  and  less 
generous  to  their  offspring.  These  prominent  and  serious 
defects  soon  craved  the  attention  of  enlightened  breeders,  who, 
by  a  judicious  introduction  of  new  blood,  have  again  restored 
the  original  character  of  the  breed,  with  all  the  improvements 
resulting  from  the  advanced  system  of  cultivation  and  the 
enlarged  area  of  sheep  farming  of  the  present  day. 

"The  New  Leicester  is  now  perhaps  the  most  widely 
extended  and  most  numerous  of  all  our  native  breeds.  The 
sheep  are  without  horns,  with  white  faces  and  legs ;  the  head 
small  and  clean ;  the  eye  bright ;  neck  and  shoulders  square 
and  deep  ;  back  straight,  with  deep  carcass ;  hind  quarters 
tapering  toward  the  tail  and  somewhat  deficient  when  com- 
pared with  the  Cotswold  sheep ;  legs  clean,  with  fine  bone. 
The  flesh  is  juicy  but  of  moderate  quality,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  proportion  of  outside  fat  it  carries. 

"They  are  not  considered  so  hardy  as  the  other  large 
breeds,  and  require  shelter  and  good  keep.  The  ewes  are 
neither  very  prolific  nor  good  mothers,  and  the  young  lambs 
require  great  attention.  Early  maturity  and  aptitude  for 
fattening  are  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  breed ;  a  large 
proportion  of  the  wethers  finding  their  way  to  market  at 
twelve  or  fifteen  months  old,  and  weighing  from  80  to  100 
Ibs.  each ;  at  two  years  old  they  average  120  to  150  Ibs.  each. 
The  wool  is  a  valuable  portion  of  the  flock,  the  fleeces 
averaging  7  Ibs.  each. 


LEICESTER   SHEEP. 


"The  occasional  introduction  of  a  little  Cotswold  blood  into 
a  Leicester  flock  has  the  effect  of  improving  both  the  consti- 
tution of  the  animal  and  also  the  hind  quarters,  in  which  the 
Leicester  is  somewhat  defective.  Ram-breeding  is  carried  out 
to  a  much  larger  extent  with  this  breed  than  with  any  other. 


ovtaoff.scjtar. 

LEICESTER    EWE. 

The  accompanying  cuts  are  from  drawings  of  a  pair  of 
Leicesters  imported  by  Mr.  Samuel  Campbell,  of  New  York 
Mills,  Oneida  County,  New  York,  and  Mr.  James  Brodie,  of 
Rural  Hill,  Jefferson  County,  New  York.  They  were 
imported  in  the  spring  of  1861.  The  ram  was  bred  by  Mr. 
Simpson  and  the  ewe  by  John  Thomas  Robinson,  both  of 
Yorkshire,  England.  The  ram  weighs  276  Ibs.*  Messrs. 
Campbell  and  Brodies'  ewes  weigh  from  200  Ibs.  to  250  Ibs. 
Their  "yearlings  and  wethers  yield  from  10  Ibs.  to  15  Ibs.  of 
wool  and  their  breeding  ewes  about  8  Ibs." 

*  His  weight  of  fleece  was  not  sent  to  me,  nor  was  the  seperate  weight  of  the 
fleece  of  the  ewe  of  which  a  cut  is  given.  Messrs.  C.  and  B.  sold  a  ram  to  Sanford 
Howard,  Esq.,  of  Boston,  which  at  21  months  old  weighed  273  Ibs.,  and  they  have 
a  two  year  old  which  weighs  300  Ibs. 


48  COTSWOLDS   INTRODUCED. 


COTSWOLD   BAM. 

THE  COTSWOLD  SHEEP. — The  Cotswold  Sheep  were 
introduced  into  the  United  States  about  thirty-five  years  ago. 
Mr.  Dunn  imported  a  ram  to  cross  with  his  New  Leicesters  in 
1832,  and  I  think  some  other  importations  of  pairs  or  single 
ones  took  place  not  far  from  the  same  period.  The  first 
considerable  importation  of  which  I  have  any  information  was 
made  in  1840,  by  Hon.  Erastus  Corning,  of  Albany,  New 
York,  and  William  H.  Sotham,  then  of  Jefferson  County,  New 
York,  whose  sheep,  twenty-five  in  number,  were  bred  by  Mr. 
Hewer,  of  Northleach,  Gloucestershire,  England.  Like  all 
the  improved  Cotswolds,  they  had  a  dash  of  New  Leicester 
blood,  and  they  were  very  superior  animals  of  the  family. 
The  same  gentlemen  purchased  later  in  1840  fifty  ewes  in 
lamb  from  Mr.  Hewer,  and  twenty  from  Mr.  William  Cother, 
of  Middle  Aston,  England.  These  were  also  prime  sheep. 
From  Messrs.  Corning  and  Sotham's  stock  have  originated 
many  valuable  flocks,  now  widely  scattered  throughout  the 
country.  Quite  a  large  number  of  Cotswolds  have  since  been 
imported  from  Canada,  a  considerable  portion  of  them  from 
the  flock  of  Mr.  Frederick  William  Stone,  of  Moreton  Lodge, 


COTSWOLD    SHEEP.  49 

Guelph,  Canada  West.  "  Pilgrim,"  the  ram,  of  which  a  cut 
is  given  on  preceding  page,  was  bred  by  Mr.  Stone,  and  is 
now  the  property  of  Mr.  Henry  G.  White,  of  South  Fra- 
mingham,  Massachusetts.  Pilgrim,  just  off  his  winter  feed, 
weighs  250  Ibs.  He  would  weigh  considerably  more  in  the 
fall.  He  yielded  18  Ibs.  of  wool  in  1862. 

The  ewe,  "  Lady  Gay,"  a  portrait  of  which  is  given  on  next 
page  was  also  bred  by  Mr.  Stone,  and  is  owned  by  Mr.  White. 
She  weighs  200  Ibs.,  suckling  a  lamb.  She  yielded  16  pounds 
of  wool  in  1862.  Pilgrim,  and  five  ewes  belonging  to  Mr. 
White,  yielded  an  average  of  16  Ibs.  of  wool  per  head. 

The  Cotswolds  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Spooner  in  his 
work  on  Sheep : — "  The  Cotswold  is  a  large  breed  of  sheep, 
with  a  long  and  abundant  fleece,  and  the  ewes  are  very 
prolific  and  good  nurses.  Formerly  they  were  bred  only  on 
the  hills,  and  fatted  in  the  valleys  of  the  Severn  and  the 
Thames ;  but  with  the  inclosure  of  the  Cotswold  Hills  and  the 
improvement  of  their  cultivation  they  have  been  reared  and 
fatted  in  the  same  district.  They  have  been  extensively 
crossed  with  the  Leicester  sheep,  by  which  their  size  and 
fleece  have  been  somewhat  diminished,  but  their  carcasses 
considerably  improved,  and  their  maturity  rendered  earlier. 
The  wethers  are  now  sometimes  fattened  at  14  months  old, 
when  they  weigh  from  15  Ibs.  to  24  Ibs.  per  quarter,  and  at 
two  years  old'increase  to  20  Ibs.  or  30  Ibs.  The  wool  is 
strong,  mellow,  and  of  good  color,  though  rather  coarse,  6  to 
8  inches  in  length,  and  from  7  Ibs.  to  8  Ibs.  per  fleece.  The 
superior  hardihood  of  the  improved  Cotswold  over  the 
Leicester,  and  their  adaptation  to  common  treatment,  together 
with  the  prolific  nature  of  the  ewes  and  their  abundance  of 
milk,  have  rendered  them  in  many  places  rivals  of  the  N"ew 
Leicester,  and  have  obtained  for  them,  of  late  years,  more 
attention  to  their  selection  and  general  treatment,  under 
Avhich  management  still  further  improvement  appears  very 
probable.  They  have  also  been  used  in  crossing  other  breeds, 
and  as  before  noticed,  have  been  mixed  with  the  Hampshire 
Downs.  It  is,  indeed,  the  improved  Cotswold  that,  under  the 
term  New  or  Improved  Oxfordshire  Sheep,  are  so  frequently 
the  successful  candidates  for  prizes  offered  for  the  best  long- 
wooled  sheep  at  some  of  the  principal  agricultural  meetings 
or  shows  in  the  Kingdom.  The  quality  of  the  mutton  is 
considered  superior  to  that  of  the  Leicester,  the  tallow  being- 
less  abundant,  with  a  larger  development  of  muscle  or  flesh. 
We  may,  therefore,  regard  this  breed  as  one  of  established 
3 


50 


LINCOLNS   INTRODUCED. 


reputation,  and  extending  itself  throughout  every  district  of 


the  Kingdom 


COTSWOLD    EWE. 

THE  LIHCOLNS. — The  Lincolns  are  a  less  improved  and 
larger  variety  of  long-wools  than  either  of  the  preceding,  and 
those  introduced  into  the  United  States,  having  been  mostly 
or  entirely  merged  by  cross-breeding  with  the  Leicesters  and 
Cotswolds,  they  do  not  demand  a  separate  description.  Mr. 
Leonard  D.  Clift,  of  Carmel,  Putnam  County,  New  York, 
imported  a  ram  and  ewe  of  this  variety,  in  1835,  "from  the 
estate  of  the  Earl  of  Lansdowne,  Yorkshire,  England." 
Messrs.  George  H.  Gossip  &  Brother  imported  a  number  in 
1836  from  Lancashire.  From  these  Mr.  Clift  obtained 
sixteen  ewes  and  a  ram,  and  established  a  flock  which  was 
generally  regarded  as  highly  valuable.  They  were  hardy, 
gross  feeders,  and  very  prolific.  They  yielded  from  6  Ibs.  to 
10  Ibs.  of  wool  per  head.  Mr.  Clift  sold  a  lot  of  half-blood 
two  year  old  wethers  in  February,  1839,  which  weighed  125 
Ibs.  to  the  carcass,  and  he  obtained  25  cents  a  pound  for  them. 

*  Spooner  on  Sheep,  p.  99. 


NEW  OXFOEDS —  BLACK -FACED  SHEEP.  51 

THE  NEW  OXFOEDSHIBES,  OB  IMPBOVED  COTSWOLDS. — 
These  were  first  introduced  into  this  country  by  Mr.  Charles 
Reybold,  of  Delaware,  in  1846.  They  are  the  result  of  a  cross 
between  the  New  Leicesters  and  Cotswolds,  the  preponder- 
ance being  given  to  the  blood  of  the  latter.  We  have  seen 
the  very  high  character  given  of  them  by  Mr.  Spooner,  in  his 
description  of  the  Cotswolds,  already  quoted. 

In  Mr.  James  S.  GrennelPs  Report,  as  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Sheep  Husbandry  appointed  by  the  Massachu- 
setts State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1860,  is  given  the  following 
communication  in  regard  to  these  Sheep  by  an  American 
breeder  of  them,  then  of  eight  years  standing — Mr.  Lawrence 
Smith,  of  Middlefield : 

"  I  doubt  whether  they  are  as  hardy  as  the  old-fashioned 
Cotswolds  or  South  Downs.  I  have  never  had  any  trouble 
with  them  in  regard  to  cold  weather,  or  changes  of  climate ; 
indeed,  they  prefer  an  open,  cool,  airy  situation  to  any  other, 
and  nothing  is  more  destructive  to  their  health  than  tight,  ill- 
ventilated  stables.  My  present  experience  warrants  me  in 
saying  that  one-half  the  ewes  will  have  twins ;  they  are  capital 
nurses  and  milkers;  I  have  not  had  for  the  past  seven  years  a 
single  case  of  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  dam,  nor  have  I  lost 
a  single  lamb  from  lack  of  constitution.  Yearling  ewes  will 
weigh  in  store  condition  from  125  Ibs.  to  175  Ibs.;  fat  wethers 
at  three  years  old,  from  175  to  250  Ibs.  My  heavist  breeding 
ewe  last  winter  weighed  211  Ibs.  My  flock  of  store  sheep 
and  breeding  ewes  generally  shear  from  five  to  seven  pounds. 
My  ram  fleeces  sometimes  weigh  ten  pounds  unwashed,  and 
will  sell  in  this  condition  for  twenty-five  cents  per  pound.  I 
never  feed  any  store  sheep  and  lambs  with  grain,  but  give 
them  early  cut  hay,  and  occasionally  a  few  roots." 

The  New  Oxfordshires  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Oxfordshire  Downs,  which  are  cross-breeds  between  the 
Cotswolds  and  South  or  Hampshire  Downs,  and  which  have 
dark  faces. 

THE  BLACK -FACED  SCOTCH  SHEEP. — These  are  a  small, 
active,  hardy,  but  for  a  mountain  family,  rather  docile  sheep, 
which  have  open,  hairy  fleeces,  and  black  legs  and  faces. 
They  can  endure  great  privations,  and  can  even  subsist  on 
heather.  Hence  they  are  often  called  the  heath  sheep.  Their 
mutton  is  of  excellent  quality.  They  weigh  on  an  average 
from  CO  Ibs.  to  65  Ibs.  each  at  three  or  four  years  old ;  and 
they  yield  about  3  Ibs.  per  head  of  washed  wool.  They  have 


52  CHEVIOT   SHEEP. 

been  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  Mr.  Samuel 
Campbell,  of  New  York  Mills,  New  York,  and  by  Mr.  Sanford 
Howard,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  for  Mr.  Isaac  Stickuey,  of 
the  same  State.  Mr.  Campbell's  sheep  must  be  a  cross,  for  he 
Avrites  me  that  he  should  think  their  weight  of  fleece  would 
be  from  6  Ibs.  to  8  Ibs.,  and  that  on  the  13th  of  May,  1863, 
they  weighed  alive  as  follows:  old  .ram,  132  Ibs.;  old  ewe, 
103  Ibs.;  yearling  ram,  102  Ibs.;  two  yearling  ewes,  99  Ibs. 
and  100  Ibs.  They  have  often  been  crossed  successfully  in 
Scotland  and  the  North  of  England,  with  larger  families. 
On  the  bleak,  sterile  mountain  ranges  of  North-Eastern  NCAV 
York,  arid  portions  of  New  England,  they  probably  would 
prove  a  profitable  acquisition. 

THE  CHEVIOT  SHEEP. — Some  of  these  (middle-wooled) 
sheep  were  introduced  into  the  State  of  New  York  a  number 
of  years  since,  and  were  thus  mentioned  by  me  in  Sheep  Hus- 
bandry in  the  South  (1848) : 

"  Sheep  of  this  kind  have  been  imported  into  my  imme- 
diate neighborhood  and  were  subject  to  my  frequent  inspection 
for  two  or  three  years.  They  had  the  appearance  of  small 
Leicesters,  but  were  considerably  inferior  in  correctness  of 
proportions  to  high-bred  animals  of  that  variety.  They 
perhaps  more  resemble  a  cross  between  the  Leicester  and  the 
old  Native  or  common  breed  of  the  United  States.  Their 
fleeces  were  too  coarse  to  furnish  a  good  carding  wool — too 
short  for  a  good  combing  one.  Mixed  with  a  small  lot  of 
better  wool,  their  this  year's  clip  sold  for  29  cents  per  pound, 
while  my  heavier  Merino  fleeces  sold  for  42  cents  per  pound. 
They  attracted  no  notice,  and  might  at  any  time  have  been 
bought  of  their  owner  for  the  price  of  common  sheep  of  the 
same  weight.  I  believe  the  flock  was  broken  up  and  sold  to 
butchers  and  others  this  spring,  after  shearing.  They  were 
certainly  inferior  to  the  description  of  the  breed  by  Sir  John 
Sinclair,  even  in  1792,  quoted  by  Mr.  Youatt,*  and  had  all  the 
defects  attributed  to  the  original  stock  by  Cully.f  They 
might  not,  however,  have  been  favorable  specimens  of  the 
breed." 

Mr.  Spooner  thus  describes  the  improved  family : — "This 
breed  has  greatly  extended  itself  throughout  the  mountains 
of  Scotland,  and  in  many  instances  snpplanted  the  black- 
faced  breed ;  but  the  change,  though  in  many  cases  advanta- 

*  On  Sheep,  pp.  285-6.  t  Cully  on  Live  Stock,  p  150. 


ASIATIC   AND   AFRICAN   BREEDS.  53 

gcous,  has  in  some  instances  been  otherwise,  the  latter  being 
somewhat  hardier,  and  more  capable  of  subsisting  on  healthy 
pasturage.  They  are,  however,  a  hardy  race,  well  suited  for 
their  native  pastures,  bearing  with  comparative  impunity  the 
storms  of  winter,  and  thriving  well  on  poor  keep.  Though 
less  hardy  than  the  black-faced  sheep  of  Scotland,  they  are 
more  profitable  as  respects  their  feeding,  making  more  flesh 
on  an  equal  quantity  of  food,  and  making  it  quicker.  They 
have  white  faces  and  legs,  open  countenances,  lively  eyes, 
without  horns.  The  ears  are  large,  and  somewhat  singular, 
and  there  is  much  space  between  the  ears  and  eyes.  The 
carcass  is  long ;  the  back  straight ;  the  shoulders  rather  light ; 
the  ribs  circular ;  and  the  quarters  good.  The  legs  are  small 
in  the  bone  and  covered  with  wool,  as  well  as  the  body,  with 
the  exception  of  the  face.  The  Cheviot  wether  is  fit  for  the 
butcher  at  three  years  old,  and  averages  from  12  Ibs.  to  18  Ibs. 
per  quarter — the  mutton  being  of  a  good  quality,  though 
inferior  to  the  South  Down,  and  of  less  flavor  than  the  black- 
faced.  *  *  *  The  Cheviot,  though  a  mountain  breed,  is 
quiet  and  docile,  and  easily  managed.  The  wool  is  fine,* 
closely  covers  the  body,  assisting  much  in  preserving  it  from 
the  effects  of  wet  and  cold;  the  fleece  averaging  about  3J  Ibs. 
Formerly  the  wool  was  extensively  employed  for  making 
cloths,  but  having  given  place  to  the  finer  Saxony  wool,  it  has 
sunk  in  price,  and  been  confined  to  combing  purposes.  It  has 
thus  become  altogether  a  secondary  consideration." 

FAT- HUMPED,  BROAD -TAILED,  PERSIAN  AND  CHINESE 
SHEEP. — All  of  these  breeds  of  sheep  have  been  introduced 
into  the  United  States  from  Asia  and  Africa,  but  as  a 
general  thing  perhaps  rather  for  the  indulgence  of  curiosity 
than  from  any  expectation  of  establishing  valuable  flocks 
from  them.  A  variety  of  the  Broad -Tailed  sheep,  however, 
sent  home  by  Commodore  Porter  from  Smyrna,  was  bred 
for  a  considerable  period  in  the  United  States,  and  kept 
pure  in  South  Carolina.f  A  family  of  them,  termed  the 
"Tunisian  Mountain  Sheep,"  were  received  "in  a  national 
ship"  by  Col.  Pickering,  who  caused  them  to  be  distributed 
in  Pennsylvania ;  they  were  bred  there  for  some  time,  and 
were  very  highly  commended  by  Mr.  John  Hare  Powell,  j  A 

*  Mr.  Spooner  undoubtedly  employs  this  term  relatively,  meaning  fine  for  a 
middle -wooled  sheep. 

1 1  received  this  information  from  Hon.  R.  F.  W.  Allston,  late  Governor  of  that  State. 
$  See  his  Letter  on  Various  Breeds  of  Sheep,  1826,  in  Memoirs  of  N.  Y.  Board  of 


54  CHINESE    SHEEP. 

Persian  ram,  "  very  large  and  well  formed,  carrying  wool  of 
great  length,  but  of  a  coarse  staple,"  crossed  with  New 
Leicester  ewes,  formed,  as  we  have  already  seen  when  speak- 
ing of  the  New  Leicesters,  the  "  Arlington  long-wooled  sheep" 
of  Mount  Vernon,  a  sub-variety  which  attracted  considerable 
notice  in  its  day. 

The  Chinese,  or  Nankin  sheep,  have  recently  been  brought 
into  this  country  and  England,  and  have  attracted  some  notice 
from  the  fact  that  they  frequently  give  birth  to  three  or  four 
lambs  at  a  time  and  breed  twice  a  year — facts  which  have  led 
to  the  expectation  that  they  may  prove  profitable  for  lamb 
raising  in  the  vicinity  of  cities.  I  have  seen  no  description 
of  their  qualities  in  any  other  particulars.  None  of  these 
breeds  have  proved,  or  probably  will  prove,  of  much  value 
as  mutton  sheep,  compared  with  the  improved  English 
families,  and  as  wool-producing  sheep  they  are  all  worthless 
compared  with  the  Merino.  I  have  therefore  thought  that 
particular  descriptions  of  them  would  not  be  worth  the  space 
they  would  occupy. 

Agriculture,  vol.  3,  p.  377.  Mr.  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  also  imported  Tunis  sheep, 
and  thought  well  of  them. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

'BEITISH  SHOKT-WOOLED  SHEEP,  ETC,,  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES. 

THE    SOUTH   DOWNS,   HAMPSHIRE   DOWNS,   SHROPSHIRE    DOWNS, 
AND    OXFORDSHIRE   DOWNS. 

THE  principal  Short -Woolcd  British  families  of  Sheep 
which  have  been  introduced  in  any  considerable  numbers  into 
the  United  States  since  the  period  of  the  early  settlement  of 
the  country,  are  the  South  Downs,  the  Hampshire  Downs,  the 
Shropshire  Downs  and  the  Oxfordshire  Downs.  I  include  the 
last  nnder  this  designation  only  because  they  are  classed 
among  the  Downs, — for  those  introduced  into  the  United 
States  are  really  a  middle  if  not  almost  a  long-wooled  sheep. 

THE  SOTTTH  DOWNS. — Professor  "Wilson,  in  his  paper 
already  cited,  thus  describes  the  South  Downs : 

"  The  South  Downs  of  the  present  day  present  probably  as 
marked  an  improvement  upon  the  original  breed  as  that 
exhibited  by  the  Leicesters  or  any  other  breed.  To  the 
late  Mr.  Ellman,  of  Glynde,  they  are  indebted  for  the  high 
estimation  in  which  they  are  now  generally  held.  When  he 
commenced  his  experiments  in  breeding  he  found  the  sheep  of 
small  size  and  far  from  possessing  good  points ;  being  long 
and  thin  in  the  neck ;  narrow  in  the  fore  quarters ;  high  on 
the  shoulders ;  low  behind,  yet  high  on  the  loins ;  sharp  on 
the  back ;  the  ribs  flat,  drooping  behind,  with  the  tail  set  very 
low ;  good  in  the  leg,  though  somewhat  coarse  in  the  hfme. 
By  a  careful  and  unremitting  attention  during  a  series  of  years 
to  the  defective  points  in  the  animal,  and  a  judicious  selection 
of  his  breeding  flock,  his  progressive  improvements  were  at 
length  acknowledged  far  and  wide ;  and  he  closed  an  useful 
and  honorable  career  of  some  fifty  years  with  the  satisfactory 
conviction  that  he  had  obtained  for  his  favorite  breed  a  repu- 
tation and  character  which  would  secure  them  a  place  as  the 
first  of  our  short -wooled  sheep. 


56  SOUTH    DOWN    SHEEP. 

"The  South-Down  sheep  of  the  present  day  are  without 
horns,  and  with  dark  brown  faces  and  legs ;  the  size  and  weight 
have  been  increased ;  the  fore  quarters  improved  in  width  and 
depth ;  the  back  and  loins  have  become  broader  and  the  ribs 
more  curved,  so  as  to  form  a  straight  and  level  back ;  the 
hind  quarters  are  square  and  full,  the  tail  well  set  on,  and  the 
limbs  shorter  and  finer  in  the  bone.  These  results  are  dxie  to 
the  great  and  constant  care  which  has  been  bestowed  on  the 
breed  by  Ellman  and  his  contemporaries,  as  well  as  by  his 
successors,  whose  flocks  fully  sustain  the  character  of  the 
improved  breed. 


SOUTH    DOWN    KAM. 

"The  sheep,  though  fine  in  form  and  symmetrical  in 
appearance,  are  very  hardy,  keeping  up  their  condition  on 
moderate  pastures  and  readily  adapting  themselves  to  the 
diiferent  districts  and  systems  of  farming  in  which  they  are 
now  met  with.  They  are  very  docile,  and  thrive  well,  even 
when  folded  on  the  artificial  pastures  of  an  arable  farm.  Their 
disposition  to  fatten  enables  them  to  be  brought  into  the 
market  at  twelve  and  fifteen  months  old,  when  they  average 


SOUTH   DOWN   SHEEP.  57 

80  Ibs.  weight  each.  At  two  years  old  they  will  weigh  from 
100  to  120  Ibs.  each.  The  meat  is  of  fine  quality  and  always 
commands  the  highest  price  in  the  market.  The  ewes  are 
very  prolific,  and  are  excellent  mothers,  commonly  rearing  120 
to  130  lambs  to  the  100  ewes.  The  fleece,  which  closely 
covers  the  body,  produces  the  most  valuable  of  our  native 
wools.  It  is  short  in  the  staple,  fine  and  curling,  with  spiral 
ends,  and  is  used  for  carding  purposes  generally."* 

*  Mr.  Jonas  Webb,  of  Babraham,  Cambridgeshire,  was  the 
most  successful  follower  of  Ellman,  and  carried  the  breed  to 
ili;it  perfection  which  is  now  seen  in  its  best  specimens.  The 
average  weight  of  his  sheep,  at  from  13  to  15  months  old,  was 
about  126  Ibs.,  and  the  average  yield  of  wool  per  head,  about 
0  Ibs. 


SOUTH    DOWX   EWES. 


Choice  specimens  of  Mr.  E  'man's  sheep  were  imported  into 
the  United  States  some  years  since  by  Mr.  John  Hare  Powell, 
of  Pennsylvania,  Francis  Rotch,  Esq.,  of  New  York,  and 
various  other  breeders.  Mr.  Webb's  have  also  been  exten- 


*  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  16,  p. 
3* 


58  SOUTH    DOWN    SHEEP. 

Bively  imported  by  Mr.  Thqrne  of  New  York,  Mr.  Alexander 
of  Kentucky,  Mr.  Taylor  of  New  Jersey,  and  others.  It  is 
understood  that  the  leading  American  importers  left  no  sheep 
in  England  superior  to  those  purchased  by  them. 

Mr.  Thorne  furnished  me  the  following  facts  in  regard  to 
his  flock,  in  answer  to  inquiries  which  embraced  all  the 
subjects  touched  upon  by  him : 

"My  flock  of  South  Downs  consists  of  something  over  200 
head,  exclusive  of  lambs.  They  are  descended  from  fourteen 
different  importations,  principally  from  the  flock  of  the  late 
Jonas  Webb.  Those  not  of  his  breeding  were  prize  pens  at 
the  Show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  and 
bred  by  Henry  Lugar,  of  Hengrave,  near  Bury  St.  Edmunds. 
The  rams  used  have  all  been  selected  with  the  greatest  care 
from  the  celebrated  Babraham  flock.  'Archbishop'  is  the 
one  which  is  now  being  principally  used.  He  was  the  first 
prize  yearling  at  the  Royal  Show  at  Canterbury  in  1860,  and 
was  chosen  by  myself  from  Mr.  "Webb's  folds  as  the  best 
ram  he  then  had.  His  price  there  was  $1,250.  He  was 
imported  in  December,  1860. 

"The  breeding  ewes  average  from  80  to  100  in  number. 
They  usually  lamb  in  March.  The  rate  of  increase  for  the 
past  six  years  has  been  142  per  cent.  This  year  (1863)  it  has 
been  158.  As  soon  as  the  lambs  straighten  up,  they  are 
docked,  and  the  males  that  are  not  to  be  kept  for  service  are 
castrated.  They  are  weaned  at  about  four  months  old.  The 
ewe  and  wether  lambs  are  given  good,  short  pastures,*  and 
the  ram  lambs  are  folded  on  rape  and  kept  there  until  all 
stock  is  housed.  Frost  (unless  perhaps  a  very  severe  one) 
does  not  appear  to  injure  the  plant,  and  hence  they  can  be 
kept  upon  it  longer  than  on  grass.  They  are  confined  to  this 
feed,  unless  a  few  small  ones  may  require  grain,  which  some- 
times is  given  to  the  lot.  When  put  in  winter  quarters  the 
wethers  have  hay  and  roots  :  the  others  have  in  addition  a 
little  grain.  The  breeding  ewes  are  kept  on  hay  until  two 
months  before  lambing,  when  they  are  given  a  small  feed  of 
corn  which  is  soon  increased  to  half  a  pint  each  per  day. 
When  they  lamb  they  are  given  turnips  instead  of  grain.  The 
wethers  [yearlings]  are  given  good  pasturage  the  next  season 
and  feed  is  commenced  as  soon  as  the  slightest  frost  makes  its 
appearance,  half  a  pint  of  corn  to  each.  When  put  in  the 

*  In  another  letter,  Mr.  Thorne  says  :  "  My  own  experience  has  convinced  me  that 
It  18  not  advisable  to  put  lambs  upon  new  seeds,  or  after  growth  from  new  meadows, 
•where  the  growth  has  been  very  rank." 


HAMPSHIRE   DOWN   SHEEP.  59 

sheds  they  are  given  turnips  and  the  corn  is  increased  to  a 
pint  each.  They  are  marketed  generally  at  Christmas.  They 
usually  dress  from  75  to  100  Ibs.  This  year  75  that  were  sold 
to  Bryan  Lawrence  of  New  York  averaged  in  weight  87 £  Ibs. 

"  With  regard  to  the  wool-producing  qualities  of  the  South 
Down,  the  one  year  that  I  kept  an  accurate  account,  the  ewe 
flock,  including  among  the  number  sheep  eight  and  nine  years 
old,  all  having  suckled  lambs,  gave  6  Ibs.  5i  oz.;  the  yearling 
ewes  8  Ibs.  12  oz.;  the  yearling  rams  from  8  to  12  Ibs.  This 
was  unwashed  wool,  though  as  you  are  aware,  their  wool  is 
not  of  a  greasy  character,  and  should  not  be  shrunk  at  the 
most  over  one-fourth,  by  the  buyer. 

"  You  may  remember  to  have  seen  some  notices  of  the  sales 
of  Jonas  Webb's  South  Downs.  The  first  sale,  in  1861, 
included  all  the  flock  except  lambs,  and  numbered  200  rams 
and  770  ewes.  They  brought  £10,926.  The  balance  were  sold 
in  1862,  and  numbered  148  rams  and  289  ewes.  Amount  of 
sale,  £5,720.  Total  two  years  sales,  more  than  $80,000."* 

Mr.  Thorne  further  writes  me: — "Breeding  ewes  require 
exercise ;  I  have  always  considered  it  more  to  the  advantage 
of  meadows  than  of  sheep  that  they  should  be  yarded."  His 
sheep  have  been  extremely  healthy.  The  only  prevalent 
disease  among  them  has  been  puerperal  or  parturient  fever,  at 
lambing.  Prior  to  1859  he  had  but  one  or  two  cases  a  year, 
but  that  year  twenty,  and  four  ewes  died.  This  was  his  worst 
year,  and  under  a  new  mode  of  treatment  the  disease  is 
apparently  entirely  disappearing  from  his  flock.  It  never, 
however,  was  confined  to  his  flock  or  family  of  sheep,  he 
informs  me,  but  has  been  a  prevalent  disease  among  sheep  of 
all  kinds  in  the  neighborhood,  though  often  called  by  other 
names. 

The  ram,  a  cut  of  which  is  given  on  page  56,  is  "  Arch- 
bishop," already  mentioned,  bred  by  Mr.  Jonas  Webb,  and 
owned  by  Mr.  Thorne.  The  ewes,  cuts  of  which  are  given  on 
page  57,  are  a  pair  of  two-year  olds  bred  by  Mr.  Thorne  from 
his  imported  stock. 

HAMPSHIRE  DOWNS. — Professor  Wilson  thus  describes  the 
Hampshire  Downs : 

"  This  rapidly  increasing  breed  of  sheep  appears  to  be  the 
result  of  a  recent  cross  between  the  pure  South  Down  and  the 
old  horned  white-face  sheep  of  Hampshire  and  Wiltshire,  by 
which  the  hard-working,  though  fine  quality,  of  the  former  is 

*  This  letter  is  dated  Thorndale,  Washington  Hollow,  N.  Y.,  April  3,  18C3. 


60  HAMPSHIRE   DOWN   SHEEP. 

combined  with  the  superior  size  and  constitution  of  the  latter. 
The  breed  was  commenced  at  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century ;  and  by  a  system  of  judicious  crossing  now  possesses 
the  leading  characteristics  of  the  two  parent  breeds.  In  some 
of  the  best  farmed  districts  of  Wiltshire,  Hampshire  and 
Berkshire,  they  have  gradually  displaced  the  South  Downs, 
and  have  in  themselves  afforded  another  distinct  breed  for 
crossing  with  the  long-wooled  sheep.  Their  leading  character- 
istics are,  as  sompared  with  the  South  Down,  an  increased  size, 
equal  maturity,  and  a  hardier  constitution.  The  face  and  head 
are  larger  and  coarser  in  their  character  ;  the  frame  is  heavier 
throughout ;  the  carcass  is  long,  roomy,  though  less  symmetrical 
than  the  South  Down,  and  the  wool  of  a  coarser  though 
longer  staple.  Their  fattening  propensity  is  scarcely  equal  to 
that  of  the  South  Down.  These  points  have  all  received  great 
attention  lately  from  the  breeders ;  and  the  improved  Hamp- 
shire Down  now  possesses,  both  in  shape,  quality  of  wool, 
aptitude  to  fatten  and  early  maturity,  all  the  qualities  for  which 
the  pure  South  Down  has  been  so  long  and  so  justly  celebrated. 
The  lambs  are  usually  dropped  early  and  fed  for  the  markets 
as  lambs,  or  kept  until  the  following  spring,  when,  if  well  fed, 
they  weigh  from  80  to  100  Ibs.,  and  command  a  good  market. 

"  The  Hampshire  Downs  are  used  like  the  South  Downs  for 
the  purpose  of  crossing  with  other  breeds ;  being  hardier  in 
constitution  they  are  perhaps  better  calculated  for  the  Northern 
districts,  where  the  climate  is  sometimes  very  severe." 

Mr.  Spooner,  in  a  paper  "  On  Cross  Breeding,"  published  in 
the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 
1859,  expresses  opinions  of  this  variety  of  sheep  very  similar 
to  those  above  given  by  Professor  Wilson,  and  he  makes  the 
following  remarks  in  relation  to  their  origin  and  blood : 

"  We  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  after  a  few  generations 
the  Hampshire  breeders  continued  to  use  the  South  Down* 
rams ;  as  soon  as  the  horns  were  gone,  to  which  perhaps  the 
Berkshire  Notts  contributed,  and'the  face  had  become  black, 
they  employed  their  own  cross-bred  rams  with  the  cross-bred 
ewes.  If  then  we  were  asked  what  original  blood  predomi- 
nated in  the  Hampshire  sheep,  we  should  unquestionably  say 
the  South  Down  ;  but  if  the  further  question  were  put,  is  the 
present  breed  derived  from  the  South  Down  and  the  original 
Hampshire  alone,  we  should  express*  a  doubt  as  to  such  a 

*  Mr.  Spooner  in  several  instances  terms  them  "Sussex"  in  the  remarks  I  quote, 
meaning  thereby  South  Down ;   and  to  prevent  confusion  among  those  not  used  to  the 
rmer  name,  I  have  changed  it  in  every  instance  to  South  Down. 


t  SHROPSHIRE   DOWN   SHEEP.  61 

conclusion,  as  there  is  good  reason  to  consider  that  some 
improved  Cotswold  blood  has  been  infused." 

After  giving  some  facts  to  prove  that  this  last  cross  was 
taken,  Mr.  Spooner  continues: 

"Although  after  dipping  once  or  twice  into  this  breed,  they 
then  ceased  to  do  so,  yet  they  have  continued  breeding  from 
the  descendants  of  the  cross,  and  thus  in  very  many  of  the 
Hampshire  and  Wiltshire  flocks,  there  is  still  some  improved 
Cots \vold,  and  consequently  Leicester  blood.*  Probably  an 
increase  of  wool  has  thus  been  obtained.  Some  say  that  on 
the  borders  of  Berkshire  the  Berkshire  Nott  was  also  used, 
and  others'  contend,  although  without  proof,  that  a  dip  of  the 
Leicester  lias  been  infused.  Be  this  as  it  may  there  is  no  doubt 
that,  although  for  some  years  past  the  Hampshire  sheep  have, 
for  the  most  part,  been  kept  pure,  yet  they  have  been  very 
extensively  crossed  with  other  breeds  before  this  period."f 

A  ram  and  five  ewes  of  this  family,  bred  by  Francis  Budd, 
Esq.,  of  Hampshire,  England,  and  which  had  been  successful 
competitors .  at  the  Exhibition  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  were  imported  in  1855  by  Mr.  Thomas  Messenger,  of 
Clarence  Hall,  Great  Neck,  Long  Island.  They  have  received 
first  prizes  from  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  from  the 
American  Institute,  and  from  various  other  Societies ;  and 
they  found  a  rapid  sale  in  the  South  prior  to  the  present  war. 
Mr.  Messenger  writes  me  that  he  finds  them  better  suited  to 
the  climate  where  he  resides,  and  more  hardy,  than  the  South 
Downs.  He  breeds  them  pure,  and  also  crosess  them  with 
Cotswolds  and  Leicesters,  with  great  advantage,  in  his  opinion, 
to  both  the  latter  families  of  sheep. 

THE  SHROPSHIRE  DOWNS, — Shropshire  or  Shrops,  as  they 
are  variously  called,  are  thus  described  by  Professor  Wilson : 

"In  our  early  records  of  sheep  farming,  Shropshire  is 
described  as  possessing  a  peculiar  and  distinct  variety  of  sheep, 
to  which  the  name  of  'Morfe  Common'  sheep  was  given, 
from  the  locality  to  which  the  breed  was  principally  confined. 
*  *  In  1792,  when  the  Bristol  Wool  Society  procured 
as  much  information  as  possible  regarding  sheep  in  England, 
they  reported  as  follows  in  reference  to  the  Morfe  Common 
breed : — '  On  Morfe  Common,  near  Bridgenorth,  which  con- 
tains about  600,000  acres,  there  are  about  10,000  sheep  kept 

*  In  a  note  Mr.  Spooner  here  states  that  it  is  "generally  acknowledged  that  the 
Cotswold  sheep  have  been  improved  by  crosses  from  the  Leicester  ram." 
t  Journal  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Vol.  20,  page  302. 


SHROPSHIRE    DOWN   SHEEP. 


during  the  summer  months,  which  produce  wool  of  superior 
quality.  They  are  considered  a  native  breed  —  are  black-faced 
or  brown,  or  a  spotted  faced,  horned  sheep,  little  subject  to 
either  rot  or  scab  —  weighing,  the  wethers  from  11  to  14  Ibs., 


SHROPSHIRE    RAM. 

and  the  ewes  from  9  to  11  Ibs.  per  quarter,  after  being  fed 
with  clover  and  turnips  ;  and  clipping  nearly  2  Ibs.  per  fleece, 
exclusive  of  the  breeching,  which  may  be  taken  at  one-seventh 
or  one-eighth  part  of  the  whole.'  *  *  This  appears 
to  have  been  the  original  stock  from  which  the  present  breed  of 
Shropshire  Downs  has  sprung.  As  the  county  advanced,  and 
the  breeds  became  valuable  for  their  carcasses  as  well  as  for 
their  wool,  the  Morfe  Common  sheep  were  crossed  with  other 
breeds,  but  more  particularly  with  the  long-wooled  Leicesters 
and  Cotswolds,  or  the  short- wooled  South  Downs.  The 
admixture  of  such  different  blood  has  produced  a  corresponding 
variation  in  the  characters  of  the  present  breed  of  Shropshire 
Downs,  and  has  tended  materially  to  sustain  the  hesitation 
which  still  exists  to  allow  them  a  place  as  a  distinct  breed.* 

*  This  was  written  in  1856. 


_,      '       SHROPSHIRE   DOWN   SHEEP.  63 

Where,  however,  the  original  cross  was  with  the  South  Down, 
and  the  breed  has  been  continued  unmixed  with  the  long- 
wooled  sheep,  they  present  the  characteristics  of  a  short- 
wooled  breed,  and  as  such  are  already  recognized  in  the 
Yorkshire  and  other  markets.  *  *  *  These  sheep 
are  without  horns,  with  faces  and  legs  of  a  gray  or  spotted 
gray  color ;  the  neck  is  thick  with  excellent  scrag ;  the  head 
well  shaped,  rather  small  than  large,  with  ears  well  set  on ; 
breast  broad  and  deep ;  back  straight,  with  good  carcass ; 
hind  quarters  hardly  so  wide  as  the  South  Down,  and  the  legs 
clean  with  stronger  bone.  They  are  very  hardy,  thrive 
well  on  moderate  keep,  and  are  rapidly  prepared  for  market 
as  tegs,  [between  weaning  and  shearing,]  weighing  on  the 
average  80  Ibs.  to  100  Ibs.  each.  The  meat  is  of  excellent 
quality,  and  commands  the  best  prices.  The  ewes  are  prolific 
and  good  mothers.  The  fleece,  which  is  heavier  than  the 
South  Down,  is  longer  and  more  glossy  in  the  staple  than  the 
other  short  wools,  and  weighs  on  the  average  7  Ibs." 

Mr.  Spooner  says  of  them  that  they  were  first  brought  into 
national  repute  at  the  Shrewsbury  Meeting,  in  1845.  He 
remarks: — "At  the  Chester  Meeting  they  beat  the  Hamp- 
shire Downs  as  old  sheep,  but  in  their  turn  were  conquered 
by  the  latter  in  the  younger  classes.  They  present  themselves 
to  our  notice  in  a  more  compact  form ;  though  shorter  they 
are  wider,  broader  on  the  heart  and  deeper  through  the 
heart."  Mr.  Spooner  quotes  Mr.  J.  Meire,  as  having  stated 
at  a  meeting  of  the  Farmers'  Club  in  Shropshire,  [in  1858  or 
1859,]  that  the  sheep  produced  by  the  cross  between  the 
original  sheep  and  South  Down  "  was  well  adapted  for  the 
downs,  but  for  the  in  closures  of  Shropshire  something  more 
docile  was  required,  consequently  recourse  was  had  to  the 
Leicester."  And  Mr.  Spooner  adds: — "This  crossing  and 
recrossing  at  length  gave  place  to  the  practice  of  careful 
selection,  and  thus  uniformity  was  sought  for  and  attained, 
and  the  present  superior  breed  was  established.  It  is  now 
held  that  no  further  cross  is  required." 

Mr.  Charles  Howard  of  Biddenham,  Bedfordshire,  in  an 
address  delivered  before  the  London  or  Central  Farmers' 
Club,  in  1860,  said: 

"  This  breed  has  been  established  by  a  prudent  selection 
of  the  breeding  animals,'  and  I  learn  from  a  gentleman  who 
kindly  favored  me  with  information  upon  the  point,  that  the 
late  Mr.  Meire  was  the  first  to  improve  upon  the  original 
type.  This  he  did  in  the  first  place  by  the  use  of  the  Leicester ; 


04 


SHEOPSHIKE   DOWN   SHEEP. 


as  their  faces  became  white  he  would  then  have  recourse  to  a 
South  Down  or  other  dark-faced  sheep.  It  was,  however, 
left  to  the  son  to  carry  out  and  to  bring  to  a  successful  issue 
what  the  father  had  commenced,  and  Mr.  Samuel  Meire  no 
doubt  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  the  improved 
Shropshire  Downs.  We  gather  from  his  address  to  the 
Wenlock  Farmers'  Club  that  he  accomplished  this,  not  by 
resorting  to  any  of  the  established  breeds,  but  by  using  the 
best  animals  from  his  own  large  flock.  *  *  Lately  a 
very  great  change  has  come  over  the  breeders  of  Shropshire ; 
they  have  availed  themselves  of  larger  sheep  of  heavier  fleece 
and  earlier  maturity,  so  that  the  only  affinity  they  bear  to  the 
original  Shrop  are  dark  faces  and  legs ;  they  now  pride  them- 
selves in  exhibiting  some  well  fatted  shearlings  [yearlings 
past,]  weighing  upon  times  22  Ibs.  to  24  Ibs.  per  quarter,  but 
this  is  not  general. 


SHROPSHIRE    DOWN 


Very  fine  specimens  of  this  variety  have  been  imported 
into  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  two  animals  repre- 
sented in  the  foregoing  cuts  are  owned  by  Hon.  N.  L.  Chatfee, 


OXFORDSHIRE    DOWN   SHEEP.  65 

of  Jefferson,  Ashtabula  County,  Ohio.  The  ram,  "Lion," 
now  three  years  old,  was  bred  by  Lord  Berwick,  of  Shrews- 
bury, England,  and  impoi-ted  in  1861.  His  live  weight  is  334 
Ibs.,  and  he  yielded  on  the  16th  of  May,  1863,  17  Ibs.  5  oz.  of 
washed  wool  of  11  £  months  growth.  The  ewe,  "Nancy,"  was 
bred  by  Lord  Berwick,  and  imported  at  the  same  time.  She 
is  three  years  old,  and  her  live  weight  is  241  Ibs.  On  the  16th 
of  May,  1863,  she  yielded  9  Ibs.  3  oz.  of  washed  wool  of  Hi 
months  growth.  Six  ewes  at  the  same  time,  and  under  the 
same  circumstances,  yielded  42  Ibs.  5  oz.  of  wool.  They  were 
sheared  the  fifth  day  after  washing  in  clear  brook  water. 

In  answer  to  my  inquiries  on  the  subject,  Judge  Chaffee 
writes  me  that  these  sheep  were  imported  by  Mr.  George 
Miller,  of  Markham,  Canada  West ;  that  they  are  very 
hardy,  healthy  and  easily  kept ;  and  that  they  excel  in  these 
particulars  all  his  other  sheep,  of  which  he  has  four  kinds. 
He  says  : 

"  They  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  long-wooled  breed,  say 
Cotswolds  or  Leicesters,  and  yielding  just  about  the  same 
quantity  of  wool,  are  in  my  judgment  much  more  hardy  and 
healthy.  They  have  the  dark  colored  legs  and  face  of  the 
South  Down ;  much  longer,  thicker  and  more  compact  fleeces 
than  the  South  Downs,  and  much  thicker  and  more  compact 
ones  than  the  long-wooled  breeds.  They  have  all  the  nice, 
round,  compact  frame,  and  even,  uniform  symmetry  of  appear- 
ance of  the  South  Down,  and  are  about  33  per  cent,  heavier. 
I  have  never  slaughtered  any  of  this  breed,  and  cannot  speak 
from  personal  knowledge  as  to  the  quality  of  their  mutton, 
but  it  is  said,  by  those  who  do  know,  to  be  very  superior  and 
hardly  to  be  excelled  by  the  South  Down." 

THE  OXFORDSHIRE  DOWNS. — This  is  a  new  family  of 
sheep,  and  I  take  the  following  account  of  its  origin  from  the 
already  quoted  address  of  Mr.  Charles  Howard,  delivered 
before  the  London  Farmers'  Club.  Mr.  Howard  is  a  well 
known  breeder  of  them.  He  says  : 

"The  'Oxfordshire  Downs'  are  what  are  commoi^jp' styled 
cross-bred  sheep ;  but  their  patrons,  in  1857,  determined  upon 
giving  them  a  definite  name.  Hence  their  new  title,  the 
propriety  of  which  is  demurred  to  by  some;  for  its  only 
similarity  to  a  Down  is  its  color,  while  its  size  and  fleece 
partake  more  of  the  long- wool — important  qualities,  which 
have  been  long  and  carefully  cultivated  by  the  promoters  of 
this  breed.  They  were  originally  produced  by  crossing  the 


66  OXFORDSHIRE    DOWN   SHEEP. 

Hampshire  and  in  some  instances  South  Down  ewe  with  a 
Cotswold  ram — most  commonly  the  former,  for  it  gave 
increased  size — and  the  putting  the  crosses  together :  by  con- 
stant attention  and  weeding,  a  most  successful" result  has  been 
accomplished,  producing  a  kind  of  sheep  that  possess,  with 
uniformity  of  character  and  hardiness  of  constitution,  large 
frames,  good  fleeces,  aptitude  to  fatten,  and  mutton  of  superior 
quality." 

Mr.  Howard  quotes  the  Messrs.  Druce,  father  and  son,  who 
were  among  the  leading  originators  and  most  successful 
exhibitors  of  the  variety,  as  publishing  the  fact  that  their  flock 
originated  from  a  cross  between  the  South  Down  and 
Cotswold.  The  younger  Druce  says: — "The  flocks  generally 
drop  their  lambs  in  the  month  of  February,  and  at  13  or  14 
months  old  they  are  ready  for  market,  weighing  upon  an 
average  10  stones  [140  Ibs.]  each,  with  a  fleece  varying  from 
7  to  10  Ibs.  The  ewes  are  good  mothers  and  produce  a  great 
proportion  of  twins."  Mr.  Druce,  senior,  commenced  this 
cross  in  1833.  Mr.  Hitchman,  an  extremely  successful  breeder 
and  exhibitor  of  them,  started  five  years  earlier,  crossing 
the  Hampshire  Down  and  'Cotswold.  His  tegs  [weaned 
lambs]  when  shorn  would  average,  in  1860,  eleven  stone 
[154  Ibs.,]  and  his  entire  clip  of  wool  7  Ibs.  per  fleece. 

These  sheep  were  first  introduced  into  the  United  States 
by  Richard  S.  Fay,  Esq.,  of  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  and  the 
Hon.  William  C.  Rives,  of  Virginia,  who  selected  and 
imported  their  sheep  together.  Mr.  Fay  had  a  considerable 
extent  of  rough  pasturage  better  adapted  to  sheep  than  other 
animals,  and  he  first  stocked  it  with  fine-wooled  sheep  and 
subsequently  with  crosses  between  them  and  South  Downs. 
Neither  experiment  resulted  satisfactorily.  A  residence  of 
several  years  in  England  induced  him  to  turn  his  attention  to 
the  English  breeds,  and  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they 
would  better  answer  his  purposes.  Living  two  years  among 
the  Shropshires  he  was  highly  pleased  with  them,  but  on 
going  to  see  Mr.  Gillet's  and  Mr.  Druce's  Oxfordshire  Downs 
he  gave^hem  the  preference,  and  purchased  and  sent  home  a 
ram  and  ten  ewes  of  this  family.  He  subsequently  imported 
several  other  lots  for  David  Sears,  Jr.,  of  Boston,  and  for 
himself.  Mr.  Fay,  in  answer  to  my  inquiries,  informs  me  that 
these  sheep  fully  meet  his  expectations — that  they  are  of  good 
constitution,  and  "  take  to  his  briars  and  rough  pastures  as  if 
•*  to  the  manor  born.' "  He  has  no  difficulty  in  raising  all 
their  lambs,  dropped  in  March,  and  the  ewes  are  many  of 


OXFOBDSHIKE   DOWN   SHEEP.  67 

them  then  fit  for  the  butcher.  The  mutton,  killed  from  his 
rocky,  rough  pastures,  in  November,  is  of  very  high  quality. 
His  ewes,  in  1862,  averaged  8J  Ibs.  to  the  fleece,  unwashed — 
the  average  weight  of  the  shorn  ewes  being  135  Ibs.  and  rams 
220  Ibs.  The  yield  of  lambs  was  160  per  cent,  on  the  number 
of  breeding  ewes.  In  1863  the  yield  of  wool  fell  to  a  small 
fraction  under  8  Ibs.,  and  the  increase  of  lambs  rose  to  175 
per  cent.*  His  wethers  yield  on  the  average  fully  10  Ibs.  of 
wool.  At  my  request,  Mr.  Fay  forwarded  me  specimens  of 
their  wool.  The  first  was  taken  from  a  ram  two  years  old, 
weighing  220  Ibs.,  and  his  fleece  this  year  weighed  12  Ibs.  10 
oz.  The  wool  is  about  8  inches  long.  The  ewe,  three  years 
old,  with  two  ram  lambs  at  her  side  nearly  two  months  old, 
weighed  136  Ibs.,  and  her  fleece  8  Ibs.  The  wool  is  over  7 
inches  long ;  the  quality  in  both  instances  is  rather  fine  for 
wool  of  such  length ;  it  has  a  good  luster ;  is  neither  hairy 
nor  harsh;  and  it  has  a  very  desirable  quality  for  certain 
fabrics,  and  will  always  command  a  ready  sale.f 

These  sheep  have  gray  faces  and  legs,  lighter  colored  than 
those  of  the  South  Downs.  Theypartake  of  the  admirable 
forms  of  their  parent  stocks ;  are  gentle  and  disinclined  to 
rove ;  but  they  are  willing  to  work  hard  for  their  feed,  and 
are  very  promiscuous  feeders.  They  make  excellent  returns 
for  their  feed  and  mature  very  early. 

*  Every  practical  sheep  fanner  understands  of  course  that  a  nursing  ewe  yields 
considerably  less  wool  than  a  dry  one,  and  that  the  fleece  is  still  more  diminished  by  a 
ewe's  nursing  two  lambs. 

1 1  made  special  inquiries  in  regard  to  this  wool,  and  detail  the  result,  when  I 
have  not  done  so  in  regard  to  the  other  English  families,  because  the  Oxfordshire 
Downs  are  of  more  recent  origin,  and  far  less  is  generally  known  of  them  in  our 
country,  in  this  particular. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE  POINTS  TO  BE  EEGAEDED  IE  FlflE-WOOLED  SHEEP, 

CARCASS — SKIN — FOLDS    OR   WRINKLES — FLEECE — FINENESS 

EVENNESS TRUENESS     AND     SOUNDNESS PLIANCY     AND 

SOFTNESS STYLE. AND  LENGTH   OF   WOOL. 

WHETHER  in  purchasing  sheep  for  the  establishment  of 
flocks,  or  in  carrying  on  the  breeding  of  existing  flocks,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  clear  knowledge  of  those  points  which 
constitute  the  peculiar  excellencies  of  the  chosen  variety. 
With  respect  to  the  English  mutton  breeds,  this  information 
was  placed  before  the  world  with  all  the  precision  and 
accuracy  of  combined  scientific  and  practical  knowledge,  by 
the  late  Mr.  Youatt  —  by  far  the  most  comprehensive  and 
able  investigator  in  this  department  of  knowledge,  and  also 
in  the  veterinary  art,  the  world  has  yet  known.  The  new 
discoveries,  advances,  or  changes  in  public  taste,  which  have 
taken  place  in  breeding  the  English  sheep  since  his  day,  have 
been  carefully  described  by  Mr.  Spooner,  Professor  Wilson, 
and  various  other  writers,  in  the  English  Agricultural 
periodicals,  particularly  by  the  authors  of  the  prize  essays 
published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 
In  one  form  or  another,  all  these  publications  have  become 
widely  known  to  the  American  public.  They  are  to  be  found 
in  every  considerable  library.  Our  American  works  on  sheep 
have  been — at  least  so  far  as  English  breeds  are  concerned — 
but  reprints  of  them.  Our  universally  disseminated  Agricul- 
tural Journals  have  spread  all  their  most  important  contents 
broadcast  throughout  our  country. 

The  fine-wooled  or  Merino  sheep  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  comparatively  little  accurate  and  detailed 
investigation  and  description.  Spain,  the  native  land  of  this 
breed,  has  no  literature  which  pertains  to  sheep.*  In  Great 

*  Though  much  that  pertains  to  shepherds  and  shepherdesses !  Cervantes  several 
times  makes  himself  merry  over  the  pastoral  literature  of  Spain.  Speaking  of  his  own 


CARCASS    OF   THE   MERINO.  69 

Britain  the  Merino  was  soon  found  not  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  market  and  prevailing  systems  of  agriculture;  and  its 
breeding  has  been  but  little  pursued  there.  In  France  and 
Germany  considerable  has  been  written  concerning  it,  but 
most  of  it  is  inapplicable  here,  because  the  standards  of 
excellence  adopted  in  each  of  those  countries  differ  essentially 
from  those  accepted  in  our  own.  Indeed,  our  own  standards 
have  materially  changed  within  a  few  years,  owing  to 
circumstances  already  mentioned.  It  is  for  this  last  reason 
that  the  valuable  works  on  Sheep  Husbandry  which  have 
appeared  in  the  United  States  do  not  furnish  full  information 
in  regard  to  those  points  of  the  Merino  sheep  which  now  best 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  market  and  the  interests  of  the 
grower.  This  information  is  the  more  needful  at  a  moment 
when  multitudes  of  comparatively  inexperienced  persons, 
under  the  stimulus  of  an  extraordinary  demand  for  wool,  are 
engaging  in  its  production.* 

CARCASS. —  Carcass  is  undoubtedly  the  first  point  to  be 
regarded,  even  in  the  fine-wooled  sheep,  for  on  its  form  and 
constitution  depends  the  health  of  the  animal.  Good  medium 
size,  for  the  family,  is  the  most  desirable  one  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  for  with  that  size  generally  go  the  best 
development  of  the  parts  and  the  greatest  degree  of  vigor. 
The  body  should  be  round  and  deep,  not  over  long,  and  both 
the  head  and  neck  short  and  thick.  The  back  should  be 
straight  and  broad ;  the  bosom  and  buttock  full ;  the  legs 
short,  well  apart,  straight  and  strong,  with  heavy  forearm 
and  fulness  in  the  twist.  I  decidedly  incline  to  the  opinion 
that  it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  to  bring  all  our  American 
Merinos  to  the  same  standard  of  size.  There  are  now  two 
well  marked  families — the  Infantado,  which  have  been  bred 
large,  and  the  Paulars,  which  have  been  kept  a  size  or  two 
smaller  and  shorter.  The  former  are  for  the  rich  lands,  the 


"Galatea,"  he  says  many  of  its  shepherds  and  shepherdesses  are  only  such  in  their 
costume:  and  this  describes  all  the  pastoral  romance  and  poetry  of  Spain  from 
Montemayor's  "  Diana  Enamorada"  down  to  Lope  de  Yeira's  "  Arcadia."  If  there  is 
a  book  in  the  Spanish  tongue  on  the  practical  topics  of  Sheep  Husbandry  I  have  never 
heard  of  it ! 

*  The  prices  of  pure  Merino  sheep  were  nearly  as  high,  and  in  some  cases  higher, 
during  the  fall  and  winter  of  1862-03  than  they  were  between  1808  and  1815.  Consider- 
able ilocks  of  ewes  were  sold  at  .$100  a  head,  and  small  numbers  at  every  intermediate 
prior  between  this  and  $300,  $406.  or  even  .sr,(M.  a  head.  One  breeder  sold  some  ewes 
at  sr,iK)  and  declined  much  higher  oilers  for  favorite  individuals.  He  declined  an  offer 
of  's-'il  (KM)  for  50  ewes.  Had  they  been  sold,  the  purchaser  was  to  receive  $15,000  for 
half  of  them  from  other  parties.  I  state  this  on  the  authority  of  the  person  making 
the  offer,  Mr.  A.  M.  Clark,  of  St.  Albans,  Vermont.  Choice  rams  sold  for  $500  to  $600, 
and  for  one  or  two  very  celebrated  ones  $2,500  a  piece  could  have  been  taken. 


70  SKIN FOLDS    OK    WRINKLES. 

latter  for  the  more  elevated  and  sterile  ones.  They  bear 
the  same  relation  to  each  other  in  this  particular  that  is 
reciprocally  borne  by  the  Short-Horn  and  Devon  cattle.  Of 
the  crosses  between  them,  I  shall  have  occasion  to  speak 
hereafter. 

THE  SKIH. —  The  skin  should  be  of  a  deep,  rosy  color. 
The  Spaniards  justly  regarded  this  a  point  of  much 
importance,  as  indicative  of  the  easy-keeping  and  fattening 
properties  of  the  animal,  and  of  a  healthy  condition  of  the 
system.  The  skin  should  be  thinnish,  mellow,  elastic,  and 
particularly  loose  on  the  carcass.  A  white  skin,  when  the 
animal  is  in  health,  or  a  tawny  one,  is  rarely  found  on  a 
high  bred  Merino.  A  thick,  stiff,  inelastic  skin,  like  that  found 
on  many  badly  bred  French  sheep,  is  highly  objectionable. 

FOLDS  OB  "  WRINKLES."  —  The  Spanish,  French  and 
German  breeders  approved  of  folds  in  the  skin,  considering 
them  indications  of  a  heavy  fleece.  The  French  have  bred 
them  over  the  entire  bodies  of  many  of  their  sheep.  To  this 
extent,  and  especially  when  prominent,  firm  to  the  feel,  and 
incapable  of  being  drawn  smooth  under  the  shears,  they  are 
an  unmitigated  nuisance,  both  in  appearance  and  reality.  If 
they  bear  additional  wool,  this  is  counter-balanced  by  its 
defective  quality  on  the  upper  edges  of  the  folds  and  the  great 
unevenness  they  thereby  give  the  fleece ;  and  were  this 
otherwise,  the  additional  amount  would  not  half  compensate 
for  the  loss  of  time  in  shearing,  in  the  "catching"  weather  of 
the  spring,  when  good  shearers  are  so  difficult  to  obtain.  It 
would  be  vastly  more  economical  to  keep  one  or  two  per  cent. 
more  sheep,  to  obtain  the  same  amount  of  wool.  But  I  must 
confess  that  among  the  thousands  of  these  disfigured  animals 
which  I  have  examined,  I  never  yet  saw  one  which  presented 
the  maximum  of  both  length  and  density  of  wool,  or  yielded 
the  maximum  in  weight  of  fleece.  For  reasons  which  I 
cannot  explain,  the  wool,  though  often  very  thick  between  the 
folds,  is  never  very  long;  and  it  is  usually  comparatively 
loose,  dryish  and  light  as  well  as  coarse,  on  the  outer  edges 
of  the  folds. 

A  wide  dew-lap,  plaited  or  smooth,  single  or  branching 
into  two  parts  under  the  jaws,  with  "the  cross"  on  the 
brisket,  were  all  that  the  older  breeders  of  Merinos  desired 
in  this  way,  on  ewes.  To  these  might  be  added  moderate 
corrugations  on  the  neck  of  the  ram.  Now,  fashion  calls  for 


FLEECE    OF   THE   MERINO.  71 

heavy  folds  on  the  neck  of  the  ram  and  more  moderate  sized 
ones  on  the  neck  of  the  ewe — but  few  besides  a  class  of 
extremists  desire  these  to  extend  in  great,  prominent  rolls 
over  the  upper  side  of  the  neck.  The  cross  extended  into 
a  pendulous  "  apron  " —  a  short  fold  or  two  on  and  immediately 
back  of  each  elbow — some  small  curling  ones  on  and  uniting 
with  the  edges  of  the  tail,  (so  as  to  give  it  a  corrugated 
appearance,  and  twice  its  natural  breadth,)  some  smallish  ones 
uniting  on  the  breech  under  the  tail,  and  running  in  the 
direction  of  lines  drawn  from  the  tail  to  the  stifle,  or  perpen- 
dicular ones  up  and  down  the  back  edges  of  the  thighs,  which, 
when  the  wool  is  grown,  close  over  the  twist — a  wide  plaited 
fold  of  loose  corrugated  skin  running  up  the  front  edge  of  the 
thigh  and  across  the  lower  edge  of  the  flank,  so  as  to  give 
both  the  appearance  of  extraordinary  breadth — and  finally  a 
general  looseness  of  the  skin,  which  disposes  it  to  lie  in  small, 
rounded,  very  slightly  elevated  and  perfectly  soft  ridges 
over  the  body,  giving  it  a  crinkled  appearance,  but  offering 
no  obstruction  whatever  to  the  shears,  and  not  showing 
on  the  surface  of  the  fleece — are  now  the  points,  in  these 
regards,  which  constitute  the  ideal  of  the  Merino  breeder. 

FLEECE. — The  greatest  attainable  combination  of  length 
and  thickness  of  wool,  of  the  given  quality,  is  the  first  point 
to  be  regarded  in  a  market  where  all  lengths  are  in  equal 
demand.  And  the  more  evenly  this  length  and  thickness 
extend  over  every  covered  part,  unless  below  the  knees  and 
hocks,  the  higher  the  excellence  of  the  animal.  It  is  in  this 
point  especially  that  the  modern  breeder  has  improved  on  his 
predecessors ;  and  it  is  this,  in  a  very  considerable  degree, 
which  gives  the  improved  American  Merino  its  vast  supe- 
riority in  weight  of  fleece  over  all  other  fine  sheep,  of  the 
same  size,  in  the  world. 

Wool  of  full  length  below  the  knees  and  hocks  would  hardly 
be  desirable  on  account  of  its  liability  to  become  filthy, — but 
a  thick,  shortish  coat,  particularly  on  the  hind  legs,  making 
them  appear  "  as  large  as  a  man's  arm,"  is  regarded  by  most 
as  a  fine,  showy  point — though  it  does  not  add  much  to  the 
value  of  the  fleece.  The  wool  should  extend  in  an  unbroken 
and  undivided  mass  from  the  back  of  the  neck  over  the  top  of 
the  head  and  down  the  face  for  an  inch  or  two  below  the  eyes, 
and  there  abruptly  terminate  in  a  square  or  rounded  shape ; 
it  should  cover  the  lower  side  of  the  jaws  nearly  to  the  mouth, 
and  rise  on  the  cheeks  so  as  to  leave  only  the  front  face  bare, 


72  FINENESS   OF   MERINO   AVOOL. 

terminating  abruptly  like  the  forehead  wool.  The  cheek  and 
forehead  wool  should  meet  unbroken  immediately  over  the 
eye  and  between  it  and  the  horn  and  ear.*  But  it  must  by 
no  means  unite  under  the  eye — though  its  outside  ends  may 
touch  there  for  a  little  way.  The  eye  should  have  just  naked 
space  enough  about  it  to  leave  the  sight  unimpeded,  without 
any  resort  to  the  scissors.  The  nose  should  be  covered  with 
short,  soft,  thick,  perfectly  white  hair.  Pale,  tan-colored 
spots  or  "freckles"  about  the  mouth,  and  the  same  color  on 
the  outer  half  of  the  ear,f  are  not  objected  to  by  the  breeders 
of  the  Paulars — but  Infantado  breeders  usually  prefer  pure 
white.  Wool  on  the  lower  part  of  the  front  face,  as  is  often 
seen  in  the  French  Merinos,  whether  short  or  long,  is 
regarded  as  decidedly  objectionable,  and  any  wool  which 
obstructs  the  sight  in  any  degree,  is  a  fault. 

The  cavities  of  the  fleece  at  the  arm-pits,  at  the  base  of  the 
scrotum,  and  inside  of  the  arms  and  thighs,  should  be  as  small 
as  the  proper  freedom  of  movement  admits.  The  scrotum 
should  be  densely  covered  with  wool  to  its  lower  extremity, 
and  the  wool  on  the  front  of  it  should  extend  up  so  as  to 
unite  with  the  belly  wool. 

The  wool  should  stand  at  right  angles  to  the  surface., 
except  on  the  inside  of  the  legs  and  on  the  scrotum  (and  the 
nearer  it  approaches  doing  so  on  the  scrotum  the  better) ;  it 
should  present  a  dense,  smooth,  even  surface  externally,  drop- 
ping apart  nowhere ;  and  the  masses  of  wool  between  those 
natural  cracks  or  divisions  which  are  always  seen  on  the 
surface,  should  be  of  medium  diameter.  If  they  are  too  small, 
they  indicate  a  fineness  of  fleece  which  is  incompatible  with 
its  proper  weight;  if  too  large,  they  indicate  coarse,  harsh  wool. 

FINENESS. — Without  having  regard  to  the  present  anom- 
alous state  of  affairs,  which  has  temporarily  so  changed  the 

*  If  it  unites  in  a  thick,  solid  mass  of  full  length,  it  is  a  beautiful  and  now  rather 
rare  point. 

t  These  spots  were  highly  characteristic  of  several  of  the  families  of  Merinos 
originally  imported  from  Spain ;  and  the  lambs  of  some  of  them  were  occasionally 
covered  over  the  carcass  at  birth  with  larger  spots  of  the  same  color,  or  of  a  deeper  tawny 
red.  Sometimes  the  whole  body  was  thus  colored.  But  all  these  tints  disappeared  on 
the  body  when  the  wool  grew  out,  and  were  seen  no  more.  Small  black  spots  were 
frequently  seen  about  the  mouths  of  Spanish  sheep  and  larger  ones  on  different  parts  of 
the  body,  and  coal-black  lambs  were  sometimes  yeaned.  This  color  often  fades  but 
never  disappears.  Black  lambs  are  now  exceedingly  rare  in  pure  American  Merino 
flocks,  yet  they  continue  to  appear.  They  are  alwiivs  excluded  from  the  flock  to  pre- 
vent their  increase,  as  they  are  regarded  as  unsightly  and  their  wool  is  less  valuable. 
All  the  different  colors  above  mentioned  are  inherited  by  the  Spanish  sheep  from 
their  original  stocks,— from  the  black,  red,  and  tawny  sheep  which  Pliny,  Columella, 
"•nd  other  contemporaneous  writers  describe  as  existing  in  Spain  about  the  opening  of 
the  hrst  century.  . 


EVENNESS   OF   MERINO   WOOL.  73 

relative  value  of  our  fine  and  coarse  wools,  it  is  known  to  all 
conversant  with  the  subject,  that  uniformly  and  under  all 
circumstances,  there  has  been  a  much  greater  demand  for 
medium  than  for  very  fine  wools  in  the  American  Wool 
Market;  and  the  table  of  prices  presently  to  be  given  will 
show  that  the  former  have  always  borne  a  more  renumerating 
price  than  the  latter  to  the  producer.  This  was  true  even 
before  our  broad-cloth  manufactories  sunk  under  the  horizontal 
tariff  of  1846.  Before  that  time,  by  far  the  greater  portion  of 
our  home  manufactured  woolens  did  not  require  staples  above 
medium  in  quality.  And  of  late  years  fashion  has  lent  its  aid 
still  further  to  reduce  the  demand  for  the  finer  staples.  There 
has  been  a  steadily  increasing  tendency  among  our  best 
dressed  and  most  fashionable  population  to  substitute  for  the 
broadcloths  and  fine  black  cassimeres  formerly  worn  for  dress, 
comparatively  coarse  cassimeres  of  various,  and  among  the 
young,  of  "fancy"  colors. 

All  these  causes  combined  have  turned  the  domestic 
demand  for  wools  above  the  grade  of  coarse,  principally  into 
a  channel  where  the  requirements  of  the  market  are  met,  and 
most  profitably  met  for  the  producer,  by  the  heavy-fleeced 
American  Merino.  Should  our  manufactories  of  broadcloths 
and  other  fine  textures  revive,  as  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  may, 
so  far  as  to  supply  the  domestic  demands  for  such  fabrics, 
there  will  be  an  additional  call  for  finer  wool,  and  this  will 
necessarily  increase  the  demand  for  finer  sheep. 

EVENNESS. — Evenness  of  quality  throughout  the  fleece,  so 
far  as  it  is  attainable,  is  one  of  the  best  results  as  well  as 
proofs  of  good  breeding.  Those  usually  short,  detached,  not 
very  coarse,  glistening  particles  of  hair  found  in  the  fleece, 
termed  "jar,"  are  very  objectionable — though  they  mostly 
drop  out  in  the  different  processes  to  which  wool  is  subjected 
in  manufacturing.  They  are  not  so  objectionable,  however, 
as  that  long,  strong,  rooted  hair  which  crops  out  through  the 
wool  on  the  thighs  and  on  the  edges  of  the  folds  —  particularly 
where  the  latter  run  over  the  neck  and  shoulders  in  very  large 
prominent  rolls.  I  would  not  reject  an  otherwise  valuable 
ewe,  of  known  purity  of  blood,  because  half  a  dozen  hairs 
barely  showed  themselves  on  the  back  edge  of  and  half  way 
down  the  thigh — though  I  would  much  prefer  not  to  see  them 
there,  and  I  would  breed  such  a  ewe  to  a  ram  which  would 
be  sure  to  leave  no  such  bad  mark  on  the  common  progeny. 
But  I  would  much  dislike  to  breed  from  a  ram  exhibiting 
4 


7  4  TRTJEKESS  —  SOUNDNESS PLIANCY . 

that  defect  to  the  least  degree.  Rams  which  have  very  large 
folds  on  the  upper  side  of  the  neck,  are  very  apt  to  exhibit 
more  or  less  hairs  on  them,  and  I  have  occasionally  seen  this 
in  animals  of  good  blood  and  good  reputation  as  sire  rams. 
It  must  be  regarded,  however,  as  a  serious  defect  —  though 
not  as  inexcusable  as  the  cropping  out  of  hairs  on  other  parts 
of  the  body,  either  singly  or  in  masses.  This  indicates  bad 
blood  or  breeding. 

TRITENESS  AND  SOUNDNESS. — Wool  should  be  of  the  same 
diameter  or  fineness  from  root  to  point.  This  is  termed 
"trueness."  On  a  poor  sheep  it  grows  finer,  on  a  fat  one 
coarser.  Consequently  a  change  of  condition  in  either  direc- 
tion correspondingly  changes  the  diameter  of  the  same  fiber 
during  different  stages  of  its  growth.  The  difference  is 
sometimes  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  When  the  change  of 
condition  has  been  great  —  especially  when  it  takes  place 
from  a  low  and  unhealthy  state  to  a  healthy  and  fleshy  one  — 
it  generally  occasions  "a  joint"  in  the  wool, — i.  e.,  the  place 
in  the  fibers  where  the  change  began,  is  so  weak  that  a  slight 
pull  will  detach  the  two  parts.  Indeed,  they  often  separate 
on  the  back  of  the  animal  and  the  whole  outer  part  is  shed 
off.  Untrue  or  jointed  wool  is  not  so  valuable  for  various 
manufactures,  and  the  different  parts  of  it  do  not  receive 
certain  dyes  equally.  The  entire  fiber  of  the  wool  produced 
on  a  diseased  sheep,  whether  it  is  true  or  not,  usually  lacks 
the  proper  strength.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  wool  of 
very  old  and  very  lean  sheep.  Wool  to  be  "sound"  must  be 
strong,  firm  and  elastic. 

PLIANCY  AND  SOFTNESS.  —  Among  full-blood,  healthy 
animals,  in  fair  condition,  the  pliancy  and  softness  of  wool 
usually  correspond  in  degree  with  its  fineness.  Where  they 
do  not,  I  should  always  seriously  distrust  pretentious  to  purity 
of  blood.  Some  allowances,  hoAvever,  are  to  be  made  for 
modes  of  keeping.  Sheep  sheltered  from  storms  and  violent 
atmospheric  changes,  have  softer  wool  than  those  habitually 
exposed  to  them.  Disease,  old  age  and  excessive  leanness 
give  a  drier  and  "wirier"  feeling  to  wool.  But  whether  this 
feeling  arises  from  natural  or  artificial  causes,  it  indicates 
inferiority  of  quality.  Fabrics  made  of  such  materials  have 
less  softness  and  elasticity,  fret  or  fray  more  readily,  and 
break  sooner  at  corners  and  on  the  edges  of  folds.  They 
admit  of  less  finish,  and  take  less  rich,  lustrous  colors.  They 


STYLE  —  LENGTH    OF   WOOL.  f5 

arc  therefore  neither  so  beautiful,  nor  so  good  for  actual  wear. 
Pliancy  and  softness  are  so  inseparably  connected  with  the 
other  best  properties  of  'wool,  that  a  thoroughly  practiced 
person  can  readily  determine  its  general  quality  by  handling 
it  in  the  dark .  Indeed,  where  the  quality  is  very  high,  it  can 
be  detected  by  the  first  touch  of  the  hand.  It  has  an 
exquisite  downiness  of  feel  which  is  unmistakable. 

STYLE. —  Style  means  that  combination  of  appearances 
which  indicates  choice  wool — viz.,  fineness,  clearness  of  color, 
luster,  regularity  and  distinctness  of  "crimp" — that  curved 
and  graceful  form  and  arrangement  of  the  locks  and  fibers  in 
the  sheared  fleece  which  indicate  extreme  pliancy  (stiff,  hai-sh 
wool  is  straighter,)  and  that  life-like  movement  on  handling 
and  peculiar  re-adjustment  of  the  fibers  after  handling  which 
is  occasioned  by  their  spiral  form  and  exquisite  elasticity. 
Style  cannot  be  satisfactorily  described  in  words,  but  it  is 
as  palpable  to  experienced  organs,  and  is  as  indicative  of 
actual  quality,  as  the  most  gross  properties  of  wool  —  such  as 
length,  fineness,  or  coarseness,  etc. 

I  should  remark  that  the  highest  style,  like  the  highest 
fineness,  softness,  etc.,  belongs  only  to  the  smaller  and  more 
delicate  families  of  the  Merino,  like  the  Electoral  Saxon. 
Prime  American  Merino  wool  only  approximates  to  these 
qualities.  And  another  remark  may  not  be  out  of  place,  in 
passing.  The  qualities  of  wool,  even  including  fineness,  can 
be  more  accurately  determined  by  the  natural  eye  than  by  the 
aid  of  powerful  magnifying  glasses. 

LENGTH. — It  has  already  been  incidentally  mentioned  that 
fine  wools  of  all  lengths  find  an  equally  ready  sale  in  our 
markets.  Those  which  would  have  been  regarded  as  too  long 
for  broadcloths  when  they  were  manufactured  in  this  country, 
are  more  desirable  for  delaines,  shawls,  etc.,  than  shorter 
Avools.  The  American  Merino  wool,  generally,  I  think, 
exceeds  all  other  Merino  wools  in  length. 

Mr.  George  Campbell,  of  West  Westminister,  Vermont, 
who  recently,  (June,  1863,)  started  with  some  sheep  to 
exhibit  at  the  World's  Fair,  at  Hamburgh,  some  time  before 
his  departure  inclosed  me  specimens  of  the  wool  of  the  ewes 
taken  out  by  him.  It  was  of  about  a  year's  growth.  The 
longest  sample,  lying  naturally  on  paper  without  a  particle  of 
stretching,  measures  3^-  inches  in  length ;  another  measures 
3£;  another  3£;  two  of  them  3;  the  shortest  2f.  Mr. 


^Q  LENGTH    OF   MERINO   WOOL. 

Campbell  wrote  to  me: — "The  sheep  are  nearly  all  of  my  own 
stock,  which  have  been  bred  from  the  Jarvis  and  Humphreys 
importation,  and  recently  from  Mr.  Hammond's  flock." 

Mr.  Prosper  Elithorp,  of  Bridport,  Vermont,  recently  sent 
me  a  number  of  samples  of  his  own  wool  and  that  of  Mr.  O. 
B.  Cook,  of  Charlotte,  Vermont.  Mr.  Elithorp's,  from  ewes 
over  one  year  old,  and  all  having  lambs,  range  from  2^  to  2f 
inches  long,  and  that  of  a  ram  is  3^  inches  long,  though  aU 
lack  45  days  of  a  year's  growth.  A  part  of  these  ewes  are 
Paulars  and  a  part  Infantados.  Two  of  Mr.  Cook's  (one  from 
a  yearling  and  the  other  from  a  two  year  old  ewe,)  measure 
3^  inches  long,  and  the  rest  (from  yearlings,)  from  2f  to  2f 
inches.  The  sheep  are  pure  Infantados. 

Mr.  A.  J.  Stow,  of  West  Cornwall  Vermont,  has  for- 
warded me  numerous  specimens.  The  longest  is  3f  inches 
long,  two  of  them  are  3,  and  most  of  the  remainder  are  about 
2f  inches  long.  They  are  all  from  ewes  over  one  year  old, 
and  the  wool  lacks  three  or  four  days  of  a  year's  growth. 
Mr.  Stow  says  "they  are  all  from  his  Hammond  sheep." 

I  have  an  old  specimen  of  wool  from  a  Paular  ram,  bred 
by  one  of  the  Robinson's,  of  Shoreham,  Vermont,  (and  owned 
by  Myrtle  &  Ackerson,  of  Steuben  County,  New  York,) 
which  measures  3^  inches  long. 

The  recent  Vermont  specimens  above  given  are  fairer  tests 
of  the  length  of  the  longer  stapled  American  Merino  wool, 
from  the  fact  that  they  were  not  sent  in  any  case  as  specimens 
of  mere  length,  but  of  fleeces  of  extraordinary  weight.  And 
I  think  great  length  is  not  now  usually  particularly  valued  in 
any  other  connection.  The  sheep  which  yield  the  most 
extraordinary  weights  of  fleece,  indeed,  rarely  have  extremely 
long  wool,  because  such  length  is  rarely  accompanied  by 
sufficient  thickness.  Mr.  Hammond's  "Sweepstakes,"  whose 
weight  of  fleece  has  probably  never  been  excelled,  yields 
wool  not  exceeding  2£  inches  long,  and  "21  percent.,"  several 
times  named  in  this  volume,  probably  never  excelled  in  the 
proportion  of  wool  to  meat,  yields  wool  2f  inches  long. 


CHAPTER    VIH. 

THE   SAME   SUBJECT   CONTINUED. 

YOLK CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS     OF    YOLK ITS     USES PROPER 

AMOUNT   AND    CONSISTENCY    OP   IT ITS   COLOR COLORING 

SHEEP   ARTIFICIALLY  — ARTIFICIAL   PROPAGATION   AND    PRES- 
ERVATION   OF    YOLK. 


YOLK. — This  is  that  .oily  feeling  fluid,  or  that  sticky, 
pasty  or  half-hardened  substance,  within  the  wool,  or  that 
hard  substance  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  wool,  which  commonly 
receives  the  name  of  oil,  grease,  or  gum.  These  appellations 
are  obvious  misnomers  when  we  take  its  chemical  constituents 
into  consideration. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  YOLK. —  Vauquelin,  a  celebrated 
French  chemist,  found  that  various  specimens  of  yolk  con- 
tained about  the  same  constituents: — 1.  A  soapy  matter  with 
a  basis  of  potash,  which  formed  a  greater  part  of  it.  2.  A 
small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  potash.  3.  A  perceptible 
quantity  of  acetate  of  potash.  4.  Lime,  whose  state  of 
combination  he  was  unacquainted  with.  5.  An  atom  of 
muriate  of  potash.  6.  An  animal  oil,  to  which  he  attributed 
the  peculiar  odor  of  yolk.  He  found  the  yolk  of  French  and 
Spanish  Merinos  essentially  the  same.  He  assumed  that  the 
yolk  in  sheared  wool  injures  it  after  a  few  months,  if  not 
scoured  out. 

USES  OF  YOLK. —  Yolk  has  been  believed  in  all  countries 
and  times  to  promote  the  growth  of  wool  and  render  it  soft, 
pliant  and  healthy.  It  seems  to  me  to  have  other  and  obvious 
uses.*  The  small,  irregular -shaped  masses  of  wool  which 
adhere  together  in  the  unshorn  fleece  of  the  Merino  sheep,  and 
which  are  bounded  externally  by  visible,  permanent  cracks, 

*  I  suggested  these  uses  in  my  Report  on  Fine -Wool  Husbandry,  made  in 
February,  1862. 


78  PROPER   AMOUNT   AND  CONSISTENCY   OF    YOLK. 

slide  on  each  other  with  every  movement  of  the  animal ;  so 
that,  in  effect,  the  cracks  are  the  joints  of  the  fleece.  If  dry 
and  unlubricated  by  the  yolk,  the  friction  of  these  sliding 
masses  would,  on  the  sides  subjected  to  abrasion,  wear  or 
break  off  the  tooth -like  processes  on  the  wool  on  which  the 
felting  property  depends  ;  and  this  same  effect  would  follow, 
whether  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  I  am  unable  to  say,  on 
those  coarse  open  fleeces  in  which,  as  in  the  covering  of  hairy 
animals,  there  is  no  such  massing  of  the  fibers  and  each  slides 
separately  on  the  surrounding  ones.  Again:  if  the  wool  was 
uulubricated,  heavy  rains,  and  the  contact  of  the  sheep  witli 
each  other,  with  the  ground  and  other  substances,  would 
cause  felting  on  the  back — a  result  now  sometimes  witnessed 
to  a  limited  extent,  and  termed  "  cotting." 

PROPER  AMOUNT  AND  CONSISTENCY  OF  YOLK. — Different 
opinions  are  entertained  of  the  amount  of  yolk  it  is  profitable 
to  propagate  in  wool.  If  the  fleece  is  sold  unwashed,  and 
according  to  the  present  general  mode,  at  a  fixed  rate  of 
shrinkage  on  that  account,  it  is  obviously  the  interest  of  the 
wool  grower  to  produce  as  much  yolk  as  is  consistent  with 
the  greatest  united  production  of  wool  and  yolk.  And  even 
if  wool  is  sold  nominally  "washed,"  it  is  evident  that  the 
same  amount  of  washing  will  leave  very  yolky  fleeces  heavier 
than  unyolky  ones.  Farmers  have  learned  that  if  they  can 
only  say  their  wool  is  washed  —  no  matter  how  washed — ten 
or  fifteen  per  cent,  more  yolk  than  would  be  left  by  thorough 
washing,  Avill  not  cause  any  corresponding  deduction  in  the 
price.  There  are  a  class  of  experienced  buyers,  certainly,  who 
do  not  purchase  in  this  indiscriminate  way,  but  as  the  wool 
business  has  constantly  expanded  and  opened  new  oppor- 
tunities for  the  profitable  investment  of  money,  every  year 
brings  its  fresh  horde  of  raw,  eager  buyers  —  the  agents  of 
manufacturers  or  speculators,  or  persons  speculating  on  their 
own  account — and  some  of  these  always  take  the  heavy,  dirty 
wools  at  about  the  price  of  the  clean  ones.  I  shall  allude  to 
this  topic  again  under  subsequent  heads. 

I  esteem  it  particularly  fortunate  for  the  preservation  of 
the  intrinsic  value  of  our  Merino  sheep,  and  fortunate  for  the 
public  interest,  that  it  is  already  incontestibly  ascertained  that 
the  greatest  amount  of  yolk  is  not  consistent  either  with  the 
greatest  amount  of  wool,  or  with  the  greatest  aggregate 
amount  of  both  yolk  and  wool.  The  black,  miserably  "oily," 
"  gummy"  sheep,  looking  as  if  their  wool  had  been  soaked*  to 


PROPEB   AMOUNT   AND    CONSISTENCY   OF    WOOL.  79 

saturation  in  half  inspissated  oil,  and  then  daubed  over  extern- 
ally with  a  coating  of  tar  and  lamp-black,  never  exhibit  that 
maximum  of  both  length  and  density  of  wool  which,  with  a 
proper  degree  of  yolk,  produces  the  greatest  aggregate  weight. 
Yolk  has  been  generally  thought  to  be  the  pabulum  of  wool 
and  if  so,  its  excessive  secretions,  as  a  separate  substance,  may 
diminish  its  secretions  in  the  form  of  wool.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  the  fact  I  have  stated  stands  without  an  exception.  And 
animals  exhibiting  this  marked  excess  of  yolk,  are  invariably 
feebler  in  constitution,  less  easily  kept,  and  especially  less 
capable  of  withstanding  sevei'e  cold.  Such  excessive  secre- 
tions appear,  then,  to  cause,  or  else  to  be  the  results  of  an 
abnormal  or  defective  organization.  For  these  reasons,  these 
comparatively  worthless  animals,  ortce  so  eagerly  sought,  have 
already  gone  out  of  use  among  the  best  informed  breeders; 
and  where  they  linger,  it  is,  like  antiquated  fashions,  in 
regions  where  the  current  ideas  of  the  day  penetrate  slowly ! 
There  should  be  enough  fluid  yolk  within  the  wool  on  the 
upper  surfaces  of  the  body,  to  cover  every  fiber  like  a  brilliant, 
and,  in  warm  weather,  like  an  undried  coat  of  varnish  —  but 
not  enough  to  fill  the  interstices  between  them,  so  that  the 
fleece  shall  appear,  as  it  sometimes  does,  to  be  growing  up 
through  a  bed  of  oil.  And  if  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  yolk 
above,  it  must  be  expected  that  underneath  where  the  fleece 
is  less  exposed  to  evaporation  and  the  washing  of  rains,  and 
to  which  part  gravitation  would  naturally  determine  a  fluid 
substance,  a  considerably  greater  quantity  of  it  will  be  found. 
But  hardened  or  pasty  masses  of  it  within  the  wool  are  to  be 
avoided,  on  all  parts  of  the  body.  A  portion  of  the  fluid 
yolk  will  necessarily  inspissate  or  harden  on  the  outer  ends  of 
the  wool.  It  is  proper  that  it  should  sensibly  thicken  those 
ends,  and  clot  them  together  in  small  masses  on  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body  —  forming  a  coat  considerably  thicker, 
firmer  and  harder  to  the  hand  than  would  the  naked  wool, 
and  quite  rigid  when  exposed  to  cold;  but  it  should  not 
cover  the  wool  in  rounded  knobs,  or  in  thick,  firmly  adhering 
patches,  bounded  by  the  fleece  cracks — sticking  to  the  hand 
in  hot  weather  like  a  compound  of  grease  and  tar,  and  in  cold 
having  a  "board-like"  stiffness.  Underneath,  for  the  same 
reasons  given  in  reference  to  inside  yolk,  a  greater  quantity  of 
it  must  be  tolerated.  It  should  stick  the  masses  of  wool 
together  in  front  of  the  brisket  and  scrotum,  and  large 
rounded  knobs  of  it  inside  the  legs  and  thighs  and  on  the 
back  side  of  the  scrotum,  are  considered  desirable. 


80  PKOPEB  COLOK  OF  YOLK. 

COLOB  OF  YOLK.  —  The  external  yolk  is  occasionally 
somewhat  yellowish  —  of  the  tinge  of  dirty  bees -wax  —  but 
more  generally  of  some  dark  shade  of  brown,  or  what  would 
more  commonly  be  termed  black.  The  darker  color  is 
preferred.  All  American  Merino  sheep  having  what  is 
esteemed  a  sufficient  amount  of  yolk,  become  very  dark 
colored  each  year  before  the  winter  is  far  advanced,  if  they 
are  housed  from  summer  and  winter  storms  after  shearing. 
Rains  wash  away  the  yolk  and  with  it  the  color.  But  the  yolk 
is  soluble  in  different  degrees  in  different  families,  and  even  on 
different  animals  of  the  same  flock.  The  Paular  (Rich)  sheep 
hold  their  color  uncommonly  well ;  the  French  rapidly  bleach. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  the  black  color  is  communicated  to 
external  yolk  by  dust,  the  pollen  of  hay,  etc.  These  may 
contribute  to  the  result,  but  I  have  recently  learned  from 
entirely  reliable  persons,  who  house  their  sheep  in  summer, 
that  if  kept  entirely  dry,  they  never  assume  their  darkest 
color  —  that  to  obtain  this,  they  must  be  exposed  to  dews, 
light  sprinkles  of  rain,  or  the  contents  of  the  watering  pot. 
The  change  in  color,  accordingly,  is  partly  chemical. 

Internal  yolk  varies  in  color  from  a  pure  white  to  a  deep 
yellow.  It  has  been  rather  the  fashion,  in  this  country,  since 
the  days  of  the  Saxon  sheep,  to  breed  for  the  former,  and 
this  is  the  prevailing  color  in  the  American  Paulars.  The 
breeders  of  the  American  Infantados,  and  of  the  Silesians, 
generally  follow  the  old  Spanish  custom  of  giving  preference 
to  shades  of  yellow.  A  brilliant  "golden  tinge,"  faint  or 
imperceptible  near  the  roots  of  the  wool,  but  deepening 
towards  its  outer  extremities,  is  the  one  sought  after.  The 
founder  of  the  improved  Infantado  family  has,  as  already 
stated,  bred  steadily  for  that  color;  and  he  has  done  so  not 
merely  as  a  matter  of  taste,  but  under  the  impression  that  it 
betokens  a  vigorous  growth  of  wool  and  general  vigor  of 
constitution  —  and  particularly  vigor  of  that  kind,  which 
exhibits  itself  in  the  forcible  transmission  of  individual 
properties  to  progeny.  But  this  "golden  tinge"  is  not 
to  be  mistaken  for  the  deep  saffron  yellow  which  attends 
cotting  —  or  for  a  dull,  dead  yellow — or  for  a  tawny  bees- 
wax hue — or  for  the  hue  of  "nankeen"  cloth,  sometimes  seen 
in  imperfectly  bred  animals.  The  favorite  color  among  the 
French  breeders  is  a  creamy  one.  In  answer  to  inquiries 
made  by  me,  in  1862,  several  experienced  manufacturers  —  all 
I  consulted— concurred  in  the  statement  that  the  color  of  the 
yolk  is  not,  in  itself,  a  matter  of  any  consequence,  in  reference 


COLORING   SHEEP   ARTIFICIALLY.  81 

to  any  of  the  objects  of  manufacturing ;  and  that  its  quantity 
and  consistency  are  only  important  in  so  far  as  they  affect  its 
weight  and  cause  a  loss  in  scouring. 

I  have  been  speaking  of  the  natural  color  of  yolk.  In 
many  regions  where  sheep  are  not  pastured  on  thoroughly 
sodded  ground,  the  whole  interior  of  the  fleece  becomes 
stained  by  dust  to  the  prevailing  color  of  the  ground.  This 
often  occurs  on  our  Western  prairies. 

COLORING  SHEEP  ARTIFICIALLY. — To  give  Merinos  des- 
titute of  it,  a  dark  external  color,  they  are  sometimes  painted. 
A  coating  of  linseed  oil  and  burnt  umber,  slightly  darkened 
with  lamp-black,  neatly  applied  within  a  few  weeks  after 
shearing,  can  be  distinguished  from  the  natural  dark  coat  of 
a  housed  sheep  with  some  difficulty,  by  inexperienced  eyes. 
But  generally  the  sheep  jockey  overdoes  the  thing  and  excels 
nature !  He  lays  on  the  coat  more  evenly  and  more  uniformly 
dark.  It  is  said  there  are  other  preparations,  with  or  without 
coloring  matter,  intended  to  give  the  fleece  a  thick,  firm 
feeling,  but  I  have  not  learned  their  composition.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  remark  that  all  such  practices  are  rank  frauds. 

ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  YOLK. — 
Yolk  is  greatly  increased  in  the  fleece  by  high  keep;  and 
careful  housing  in  summer,  as  well  as  winter,  as  I  have 
repeatedly  remarked,  preserves  it  there.  The  objects  and 
effects  of  these  practices  will  be  alluded  to  hereafter. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ADAPTATION  OF   BEEEDS   TO    DIFFERENT    SITUATIONS. 

MARKETS  -  CLIMATE  -  VEGETATION  -  SOILS  -  NUMBER  OF 
SHEEP  TO  BE  KEPT  -  ASSOCIATED  BRANCHES  OF  HUS- 
BANDRY. 

PERSONS  desirous  of  engaging  in  Sheep  Husbandry  are 
frequently  at  a  loss  to  decide  what  breed  of  sheep  is  best 
adapted  to  their  particular  wants  and  circumstances.  The 
first  and  leading  point  to  determine  is  whether  it  would  be 
most  profitable  to  make  mutton  the  prime  consideration  and 
wool  the  accessory  —  or  wool  the  prime  consideration  and 
mutton  the  accessory.  If  the  first  conclusion  is  adopted,  some 
of  the  improved  English  mutton  varieties  are  undoubtedly  to 
be  preferred  ;  if  the  last,  the  Merino  has  no  competitor. 

MARKETS.  —  Where  other  circumstances  equally  admit  of 
either  husbandry,  it  is  the  market  that  determines  which 
product  is  most  profitable  to  the  producer.  Wool  has  a  vastly 
greater  and  more  universal  consumption  than  mutton,  because 
it  is  a  prime  necessary  of  life  to  every  man  outside  the  tropical 
zone.  As  such  a  necessary,  it  can  never  find  any  practical 
substitutes.  Mutton  is  not  a  necessary  of  life,  although  it  is 
made  to  contribute  largely  towards  one  —  human  food.  It 
readily  admits  of  substitutes.  It  is  scarcely  used  by  large 
classes  of  men  and  even  by  whole  nations.  Yet  it  is 
demonstrable  that  it  can  be  produced  more  cheaply  than  any 
other  meat.  No  meat,  not  even  the  choicest  of  beef,  is  more 
palatable  to  those  accustomed  to  its  use  ;  and  none  is  more 
nutritious  and  healthful.  The  prize-fighter,  whose  success 
depends  upon  the  perfect  integrity  of  all  his  physical  tissues 
and  functions,  is  as  often  trained  on  mutton  as  on  beef;  the 
physician  as  often  recommends  it  to  the  invalid.  And  finally, 
it  wastes  less  than  beef  in  being  converted  into  food.*  Every- 


ny  M 


ReP°rt  on  SheeP  Husbandry  made  to  the  Mass.  Board  of  Agriculture  in 
r.  James  S.  Grennell,  thus  condenses  the  results  of  various  experiments 


MUTTON   MARKET   OF   UNITED   STATES.  83 

thing  therefore  marks  it  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  articles 
of  human  consumption ;  and  where  its  use  is  once  established, 
there  is  no  one  which  finds  a  steadier  demand  or  more 
uniformly  remunerating  prices. 

In  England  mutton  is  the  favorite  animal  food  from  the 
peer  to  the  peasant — the  former  preferring  the  choicer 
qualities  as  a  matter  of  taste,  the  latter  the  cheaper  and  fatter 
ones  as  a  matter  of  economy.  A  pound  of  Leicester  mutton 
which  has  an  external  coating  of  fat  as  thick  as  that  on  well 
fattened  pork,  will  go  as  far  to  support  life  as  a  pound  of  pork, 
eaten  simply  in  the  condition  of  cooked  meat ;  and  eaten 
partly  as  meat  and  used  partly  to  convert  vegetables  into 
soups  having  the  flavor  and  to  some  extent  the  nutritive 
qualities  of  meat,  it  will  not  only  produce  more  palatable 
nutriment  than  the  pork,  but  nutriment  capable  of  being 
distributed  so  as  to  supply  more  wants. 

Thirty  or  forty  years  ago  but  very  little  mutton  was 
consumed  in  the  United  States.  Our  people  had  not  learned 
to  eat  it.  Colonizing  a  new  country  covered  with  forests 
containing  animals  that  prey  on  sheep,  and  in  which  the 
necessary  labor  for  guarding  them  was  scarce  and  high,  our 
forefathers  kept  only  enough  to  meet  pressing  wants  for  wool 
for  household  uses.  Few  were  used  for  food,  and  the  early 
sheep  of  our  country  did  not  constitute  very  palatable  food. 
Beef  and  pork  were  more  easily  grown  and  better  relished. 
This  state  of  things  continued  until  mutton  became  a  stranger 
to  American  tables.  When  at  length  the  country  became 
better  adapted  to  the  production  of  sheep,  there  was  no  call 
for  mutton.  I  can  myself  remember  when  it  was  rarely  seen 
and  never  habitually  used  on  the  table,  except  perhaps  in 
cheap  school  boarding-houses  of  the  "Dotheboy's  Hall"  order. 
This  prejudice  continued  until  the  comparatively  recent 
general  introduction  of  the  improved  English  mutton  sheep — 
and  until  fashion  in  cities,  for  once,  inaugurated  a  great  and 
useful  change  in  the  public  taste.  Some  of  the  earlier  preju- 
dices yet  linger  among  our  rural  population ;  yet  the  same 
change  is  making  its  way,  not  slowly,  into  the  country.  The 
first  quality  of  mutton  now  commands  a  higher  price  in  our 


on  this  subject:  "English  chemists  and  philosophers,  by  a  series  of  careful  experi- 
ments, find  that  100  Ibs.  of  beef,  in  boiling,  lose  26%  Ibs.,  in  roasting,  32  Ibs.,  and  in 
baking  30  Ibs.  by  evaporation  and  loss  of  soluble  matter,  juices,  water  and  fat.  Mutton 
lost  by  boiling  21  Ibs.,  and  by  roasting  24  Ibs. ;  or  in  another  form  of  statement,  a  leg  of 
mutton  costing  raw,  15  cents,  would  cost  boiled  and  prepared  for  the  table,  18)£  cents 
a  pound ;  boiled  fresh  beef  would,  at  the  same  price,  cost  19K  cents  per  pound,  sirloia 
of  beef  raw,  at  \&A  cents,  costs  roasted  24  cents,  while  a  leg  of  mutton  at  15  cents, 
would  cost  roasted  only  22  cents." 


84  MUTTON   MARKET    OF    UNITED    STATES. 

markets  than  the  first  quality  of  beef.  The  extent  and 
rapidity  of  the  change  in  our  cities  receives  a  striking 
illustration  from  the  following  facts  stated  in  Mr.  GrennelFs 
Report  to  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  1860: 

"  At  Brighton  (near  Boston,)  on  the  market  day  previous 
to  Christmas,  1839,  two  Franklin  county  men  held  400  sheep, 
every  one  in  the  market,  and  yet  so  ample  was  that  supply, 
and  so  inactive  the  demand,  that  they  could  not  raise  the 
market  half  a  cent  a  pound,  and  finally  sold  with  difficulty  ;" 
and  "just  twenty  years  after  that,  at  the  same  place,  on  the 
market  day  previous  to  Christmas,  1859,  five  thousand  four 
hundred  sheep  changed  from  the  drover  to  the  butcher." 

The  history  of  Boston  in  this  respect  is  but  the  history  of 
all  oiir  larger  cities,  towns  and  villages.  When  this  taste 
fully  extends  to  our  rural  population  —  when  our  laboring 
farmers  learn,  as  they  ought  to  learn  and  will  learn,  that 
eating  fat  pork  all  the  year  round  is  not  most  conducive  to 
health  and  to  an  enlarged  general  economy  —  when  they 
acquire  the  habit,  as  they  so  conveniently  could,  of  killing 
mutton  habitually  for  household  and  neighborhood  consump- 
tion in  its  fresh  state* — our  people,  now  the  greatest 
consumers  of  animal  food  among  the  civilized  nations  of  the 
world,  will  become  by  far  the  greatest  consumers  of  mutton 
in  the  world.  I  doubt  whether  the  enormous  amount  which 
will  be  annually  grown  and  consumed  in  this  country,  within 
fifty  years,  has  yet  occurred  to  our  most  sanguine  advocates 
of  mutton  sheep. 

It  is  a  fixed  fact,  thoroughly  settled  by  the  experience  of 
England,  and  beginning  to  be  well  understood  in  extensive 
regions  of  our  country,  that  where  the  market  for  mutton  is 
large  and  near  by,  and  the  local  circumstances  are  favorable 
to  its  culture,  its  production,  if  well  understood  and  conducted, 
is  more  profitable  as  a  leading  object,  than  the  production  of 
wool.  The  Merino  was  introduced  into  England  under  the 
most  favorable  auspices,  and  its  propagation  fostered  by 
kingly  example  and  encouragement.  But  neither  as  a  wool 
sheep  proper,  nor  when  bred  into  what  may  be  termed  a  half 
mutton  sheep,  has  it  been  able  to  compete  at  all  successfully 
with  the  pure  mutton  breeds.  Where  the  soils  and  surround- 
ings are  suitable,  it  is  already  becoming  more  profitable  (in 

*  The  frequent  killing  of  beeves  on  farms,  to  be  eaten  fresh,  is  not  convenient  on 
account  of  their  size.  In  warm  weather,  the  meat  could  not  usually  be  disposed  of 
without  salting  down,  unless  the  farmer  should  change  his  occupation  to  that  of  a 
traveling  meat  peddler.  It  is  not  so  with  the  sheep.  Three  or  four  farmers  could  join 
together  to  buy  all  the  meat,  or  to  kill  alternately  and  divide  the  carcass. 


CrfMATE    ADAPTED   TO   DIFFERENT   BREEDS.  85 

ordinary  times,  when  the  natural  conditions  of  the  market 
are  not  unsettled  by  war,)  to  grow  first-class  mutton  sheep 
throughout  most  of  New  England,  excepting  Vermont  and  the 
northern  halves  of  New  Hampshire  and  Maine  —  throughout 
the  eastern  portions  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  —  and 
throughout  a  belt  of  country  round  every  city  and  village, 
wider  or  narrower  according  to  its  population  —  than  it  is  to 
grow  the  wool  sheep  proper.  And  this  area  of  mutton 
production  must  steadily  increase,  pushing  back  wool 
production  further  from  the  sea-board  and  from  all  dense 
aggregations  of  population. 

While  the  preceding  facts,  in  my  opinion,  admit  of  no 
reasonable  question,  it  is  nevertheless  equally  true  that  the 
demand  for  wool  in  the  United  States  is,  as  I  shall  presently 
show,  far  less  adequately  supplied  already  with  the  domestic 
product — and  that  this  demand  must  of  absolute  necessity  go 
on  increasing  forever  in  the  same  ratio  with  the  increase  of 
our  entire  population  —  so  that,  in  the  aggregate,  the  amount 
of  land  and  other  capital,  which  can  be  profitably  invested  in 
its  production  will  always  exceed  that  which  can  be  profitably 
invested  in  mutton  production,  in  the  proportion  of  almost 
hundreds  to  one.  Our  vast  interior  regions,  with  the 
exceptions  already  indicated  in  the  vicinity  of  cities,  and  with 
certain  others  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  specify  here  —  in 
other  words,  all  regions  remote  from  meat  markets  or  from 
which  the  transportation  to  such  markets  is  distant  or 
expensive — can  be  more  profitably  devoted  to  the  production 
of  wool  as  a  leading  object  than  mutton. 

It  will  be  seen  from  all  the  foregoing  that  there  is, 
properly  speaking,  no  competition  whatever  between  the 
mutton  growing  and  the  wool  growing  sheep  —  that  their 
respective  profitableness  is  purely  a  question  of  place  and 
some  other  circumstances  which  I  am  about  to  name  —  and 
that  to  raise  that  question  abstractly,  and  independently  of 
these  local  and  other  considerations,  as  is  often  done,  is  almost 
as  irrelevant  and  unmeaning  as  it  would  be  to  ask  which  is 
the  most  profitable  mode  of  transportation,  ships  or  locomo- 
tives, without  having  reference  to  the  fact  whether  such 
transportation  must  be  made  by  land  or  water.  I  will  now 
proceed  to  examine  the  other  qualifying  local  circumstances, 
besides  those  of  market. 

CLIMATE. —  The  English  improved  mutton  sheep  in  its 
present  perfect  development  of  all  the  points  which  constitute 


86  VEGETATION  ADAPTED  TO   DIFFERENT   BREEDS. 

a  matchless  meat-producing  animal,  is  in  some  part  a  product 
of  the  temperate,  uniform  and  moist  climate  of  England.  It 
has  withstood  the  effects  of  acclimation  in  the  United  States 
successfully,  but  it  requires  more  care  and  shelter  and  is  not 
so  well  adapted  to  our  habitual  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  as 
the  hardier  Merino.*  Exposed  without  good,  adequate 
shelter  to  rapid  and  excessive  variations  of  temperature,  it  is 
subject  to  colds  which  tend  to  various  diseases,  both  of 
inflammatory  and  typhoid  types :  and,  at  best,  it  wilts  and 
withers  away.  It  is  not  adapted  to  very  cold  or  very  warm 
climates  for  another  reason  —  on  account  of  the  influence  they 
exert  on  vegetation.  But  its  sustentation  will  be  considered 
under  another  head. 

The  Merino  endures  vicissitudes  and  extremes  of  weather 
better  than  any  other  sheep  which  approximates  to  it  in  value. 
Its  range  of  habitation  extends  throughout  the  temperate 
zone.  It  will  flourish  wherever  the  ox  or  the  horse  will 
flourish;  but,  like  those  animals,  thrives  better  for  some 
degree  of  winter  shelter  anywhere,  and  demands  it  in  regions 
of  severe  cold,  and  especially  in  those  where  humidity  and 
cold  are  liable  to  follow  each  other  rapidly. 

VEGETATION. —  The  English  breeds  of  sheep  require 
abundant  and  steady  supplies  of  food  properly  or  profitably 
to  develop  their  peculiar  value  as  mutton  sheep  —  viz.,  their 
fattening  properties  and  early  maturity.  They  are  therefore 
unadapted  to  regions  where  the  summer  is  hot  enough  to  dry 
up  the  vegetation,  as  on  the  plains  of  Texas  and  Southern 
Spain — or  regions  subject  to  periodical  drouths,  like  Australia 
and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  —  or  those  where  vegetation  is 
locked  up  by  long  and  rigorous  winters,  as  in  various 
northern  inhabited  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  For  the 
scarcity  of  succulent  food  produced  by  summer  drouth,  there 
can  be  no  adequate  reparation  to  these  hearty  and  gross 
feeding  animals.  For  the  long  and  severe  winter,  there 
may  be  sufficient  extra  provision  made  in  grain  and  roots : 
and  where  land  is  comparatively  cheap,  and  mutton  in  good 
demand,  that  extra  provision  can  be  profitably  made.  These 
are  the  conditions  of  New  York  and  New  England  as  mutton 
producing  countries.  England  presents  far  more  favorable 
natural,  and,  in  many  respects,  artificial  conditions,  for  its 

*  I  do  not  of  course  here  include  among  the  improved  English  mutton  sheep,  the 
mack -faced  Scotch  or  Heath  Sheep,  or  the  Cheviots,  though  I  enumerated  them  among 
the  English  sheep  which  are  residents  of  the  United  States. 


VEGETATION   ADAPTED   TO   DIFFERENT    BREEDS.  87 

production,  but  still  the  greatly  higher  cost  of  land  there, 
more  than  counterbalances  those  advantages  on  the  score  of 
actual  and  direct  profit  to  the  grower.  While  all  the  mutton 
sheep  are  abundant  consumers,  there  is  a  difference  in  them  in 
this  particular,  and  in  the  quality  of  the  food  they  require. 
Speaking  generally,  the  long-wools  require  the  richest  and 
most  abundant  pasturage,  and  they  will  consume  ranker 
herbage  than  would  be  adapted  to  upland  breeds,  or  to  the 
Merino.  They  are  much  less  inclined  to  travel  or  work  for 
their  food.  They  are  therefore,  properly,  low-land  sheep. 
Their  place  is  rather  the  rich,  moist  plain,  than  the  dry  hill- 
side. The  Leicester  is  the  tenderest  and  the  least  disposed  to 
work  of  all.  The  Cotswold  is  perhaps  the  hardiest  and  best 
worker  of  the  long-Svools  which  I  have  described,  and  thrives 
on  low,  moist  hills,  like  those  from  which  it  derives  its  name.* 
Judging  from  its  blood,  the  New  Oxfordshire  should  occupy 
an  intermediate  place  between  the  two  preceding  families. 
All  the  Down  families  are  hardy  and  possess  good  working 
qualities.  In  England  they  are  regarded  as  an  upland  sheep, 
adapted  to  dry  and  comparatively  scanty  pasturage  when 
necessary.  But  this  is  to  be  understood  with  qualifications, 
in  the  United  States.  The  words  "  upland  "  and  "  dry,"  as 
applied  to  pasturage,  have  very  different  significations  from 
their  English  ones,  in  our  land  of  lofty  hills  and  mountains, 
and  of  dry,  scorching  summers. 

As  a  hard  working  sheep — as  a  sheep  adapted  to  very 
scanty,  or  dried  up,  or  poor  pasturage, —  none  of  the  heavy 
English  mutton  breeds  can  compare  with  the  Merino.  The 
latter,  indeed,  work  for  their  food  of  preference.  Where 
they  have  an  opportunity  to  choose,  they  will  invariably 
desert  the  rich  valley  a  considerable  portion  of  each  day  to 
climb  the  lofty  hill -side,  and  they  love  to  clamber  about  its 
steep  declivities  and  among  rocks,  to  crop  the  scattered  tufts 
of  grass,  and  browse  on  those  bushes  and  weeds  which  they 
are  fond  of  mingling  with  their  food.  They  have  not,  in  these 
particulars,  been  bred  away  as  far  from  the  natural  habits  of 
the  species  as  the  English  sheep.  Their  annual  sojourn 
among  the  mountains  of  Spain,  until  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  preserved  these  habits. 

From  an  observation  of  these  facts,  it  has  been  inferred 
that  the  Merino  requires  short  verdure,  and  a  considerable 
variety  of  it.  It  is  probable,  on  chemical  considerations,  that, 
other  things  being  equal,  several  kinds  of  food  will  furnish 

*  The  Cotswold  Hills  are  iu  Gloucestershire,  England. 


88  SOILS   ADAPTED   TO   DIFFERENT   BREEDS. 

more  of  the  constituents  of  wool  than  will  a  single  kind  — 
and  consequently  that  a  variety  in  it,  tends  to  the  development 
of  a  heavier  fleece.  But  abundance  and  richness  of  food, 
when  the  Merino  is  compelled  to  accept  them,  affect  its 
tissues  as  they  do  those  of  all  other  sheep,  and  more  than 
compensate  for  the  want  of  variety.  Removed  from  the 
pastures  of  NCAV  England,  or  of  North -eastern,  Eastern  and 
Southern  New  York — grazing  lands  proper — to  the  rich 
clover  fields  of  Western  New  York,  Ohio,  etc.,  the  Merino 
increases  considerably,  both  in  size  and  weight  of  wool  —  and 
it  continues  equally  healthy. 

SOILS. — The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  a  consideration  of  weight 
in  selecting  a  breed  of  sheep  to  stock  it,  because  on  that 
fertility  depends  the  luxuriance,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  quality 
of  its  vegetation.  Its  nature  and  condition  in  other 
respects  are  also  important.  Habitual  wetness  of  the 
ground,  from  whatever  cause  it  arises,  is  highly  injurious  to 
most  kinds  of  sheep,  and  particularly  to  upland  ones.  The 
Merino  cannot  endure  it;  and  wool  growing  can  never  be 
profitably  pursued  on  such  lands.  That  mutton  growing  can, 
is  abundantly  proved  by  the  example  of  the  English  farmers 
in  Lincolnshire,  Kent,  etc.  In  such  situations,  the  long- 
wooled  sheep  are  decidedly  preferable. 

It  is  thought,  in  England,  that  an  occasional  or  even 
single  visit  to  some  fen  or  stagnant  pool  sometimes 
communicates  the  fatal  rot*  to  flocks  of  sheep.  I  never 
have  heard  of  an  instance  of  this  in  the  United  States.  In 
our  Northern  and  Eastern  States  I  never  have  known  the 
most  free  access  to  swamps,  pools,  etc.,  to  prove  injurious  to 
sheep,  provided  they  had  abundant  pasturage  and  pure  water 
without,  and  only  entered  the  marshy  lands  voluntarily,  as  all 
sheep  will  occasionally  do  in  quest  of  a  change  of  food. 
Constant  access  to  salt-marshes  is  considered  actually 
promotive  of  their  health  and  thrift.  I  have  received  various 
accounts  of  fatal  disorders  attacking  sheep  in  Texas,  in 
consequence  of  being  kept  on  what  are  termed  hog-wallow 
prairies  —  low,  flat,  moist,  very  rich  lands.  I  should  expect 
such  results  in  large  flocks  restricted  to  such  lands,  in  all  our 
warm  climates;  and  such  pasturages  would  be  decidedly 
uncongenial  to  all  the  short-wooled  varieties  of  sheep,  in  any 
climate. 


*  I  speak  of  liver  rot,  not  hoof  rot.    The  names  are  sometimes  confounded  in  our 
^Northern  States  where  the  former  disease  is  mostly  unknown. 


HERDING   OF  DIFFERENT  BREEDS.  89 

A  very  light,  sandy  or  other  soil  which  rises  readily  in 
clouds  of  dust,  when  not  well  sodded  over,  is  unfavorable 
to  the  cleanliness  and  beauty  of  wool  —  yet  some  healthy 
and  profitable  sheep  ranges  have  this  fault.  A  gravelly 
loam,  or  other  soil  of  about  equal  consistency,  readily 
permeable  to  surface  water,  thoroughly  drained,  abounding 
m  clear,  rapid -flowing  brooks,  elevated  and  free  from 
malarious  influences,  dotted  with  groves  or  clusters  of  shade 
trees,  and  of  about  medium  fertility,  combines  the  conditions 
preferred  by  the  Merino.  The  same  conditions  would  as  well 
meet  the  wants  of  the  Downs ;  and  greater  fertility  would 
not  be  objectionable  to  them.  Lower  and  moister  soils  of  the 
richest  quality  are  congenial  to  the  long-wools. 

THE  NUMBER  OF  SHEEP  TO  BE  KEPT. — Mutton  sheep 
consume  more,  demand  a  greater  variety  of  artificial  feed, 
and  greatly  more  care  than  Merinos,  and  therefore  are  better 
adapted  to  small,  high-priced  farms,  where  it  is  desirable 
to  invest  as  much  capital  in  sheep  as  can  be  rendered 
remunerative.  But  the  long-wooled  families  would  be 
wholly  unadapted  to  large  farms,  where  surplus  capital  is 
wanting,  even  were  there  not  a  difficulty  of  another  kind. 
They  do  not  herd  well  —  that  is,  thrive  well  when  kept 
together  in  large  numbers.  The  Down  families  herd  much 
better,  but  still  do  not  compare  with  the  Merinos  in  this 
respect.  In  Australia  and  Texas,  a  thousand  or  more  Merinos 
often  run  in  the  same  flock,  summer  and  winter,  throughout 
the  year,  occupying  the  same  pastures  by  day  and  the  same 
folds  by  night.  And  my  friend,  George  Wilkins  Kendall,  of 
Texas,  used  playfully  to  insist  to  me  that  in  his  Merino  flocks 
of  that  number,  he  could  not  find  one  poor  enough  to  make 
palatable  mutton !  His  flocks  passed  through  the  terrible 
winter  of  1860  without  artificial  feed  or  shelter  —  when  the 
cold  was  severer  than  ever  before  known  in  that  climate,  and 
when  it  so  arrested  the  growth  of  grass  tha*-  his  sheep  daily 
traveled  four  or  five  miles  from  their  folds  to  obtain  food; — 
and  he  did  not  lose  scarcely  one  per  cent,  of  their  number ! 
A  large  number  of  mutton  sheep  may  be  kept  on  the  same 
farm  with  a  sufficient  division  of  the  fields  and  winter 
shelters ;  but  they  cannot  profitably  or  safely  be  kept 
together  in  large  flocks. 

ASSOCIATED  BRANCHES  OF  HUSBANDRY. —  Economy  de- 
mands that  for  the  most  profitable  production  of  mutton 


90  SHEEP  WITH   OTHER   HUSBANDRY. 

there  should  be  associated  with  it  a  proportionable  amount 
of1  convertible  husbandry.  Mutton  sheep  demand  grain, 
roots,  etc.,  in  large  quantities,  and  in  return  they  supply  all 
the  necessary  fertilizing  materials  for  those  crops.  These 
fertilizers  are  comparatively  wasted  if  not  devoted  to  those 
crops.  Each  husbandry,  then,  is  necessary  to  the  highest 
profitableness  of  the  other.  Without  such  union,  neither  the 
present  admirable  system  of  British  agriculture,  nor  the 
present  maximum  of  population  which  derives  its  sustentation 
from  that  agriculture,  could  be  kept  up.  The  adaptation  of 
the  soil  and  other  circumstances  to  convertible  husbandry, 
the  tastes  or  wishes  of  the  flock-master  in  regard  to  embarking 
in  it  in  connection  with  mutton  growing,  and  the  local  market 
for  its  products,  all  become,  therefore  auxiliary  considerations 
of  weight  in  choosing  between  mutton  and  wool  growing. 

I  have  aimed  to  present,  Avith  impartiality,  the  principal 
circumstances  which  determine  the  adaptability  of  different 
kinds  of  sheep  to  different  situations.  There  are,  however, 
generally  more  or  less  minor  ones  in  every  man's  case,  knoAvn 
only  to  himself,  which  somewhat  qualify  the  influence  of  the 
major  ones ;  and  of -these  he  must  be  his  own  sole  judge.  In 
closing  this  branch  of  my  subject,  I  will  only  further  add  that 
while,  in  selecting  a  breed  of  sheep,  every  one  should  keep  his 
eyes  firmly  fixed  on  the  primary  object  of  production,  he 
never  should  altogether  lose  sight  of  the  accessory  one.  The 
mutton  sheep  would  probably  be  nowhere  profitable  without 
its  wool,  and  the  wool  sheep  would  be  much  less  profitable 
without  its  mutton. 


CHAPTER    X. 

PEOSPEOTS   AND    PEOFITS   OP   WOOL  AND    MUTTON 
PEODUCTION  IN  THE   UNITED   STATES, 

THE  subjoined  table  of  the  Prices  of  Wool,  in  one  of  the 
principal  Wool  Markets  of  the  United  States,  extending 
through  thirty- eight  years  —  through  the  most  disastrous 
revulsions  in  the  money  market  and  in  the  prices  of  all  kinds 
of  property  —  under  tariffs  which  have  at  one  period  given 
excessive  protection  to  our  woolen  manufactures,  and  at 
others  abandoned  them  unaided  to  the  competition  of  Europe 
—  presents  the  best  proof  I  possess,  nay,  the  most  unan- 
swerable proof  possible,  of  the  steady  remunerativeness  of 
wool  production.  It  was  prepared  for  me  in  1862,  from  his 
own  books  and  those  of  his  predecessors  in  the  same  firm,  by 
George  Livermore,  Esq.,  of  Boston,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Avool  commission  merchants  ever  in  the  United  States  —  and 
his  name  is  an  ample  guaranty  of  its  accuracy.  It  has  now 
been  published  a  year,  and  has  circulated  throughout  the 
trade  without  one  of  its  figures  being  questioned.*  I  have 
added  a  column  to  it  indicating  the  tariff  laws  in  force  at 
the  different  periods,  but  there  is  not  space  here  to  give 
even  a  synopsis  of  those  tariffs.f 

The  average  and  not  the  extreme  prices  for  each  quarter 
are  given,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  these  are  not  given 
strictly  by  quarters  anterior  to  1827. 

I  have  learned,  from  various  reliable  sources,  that  from 
1800  to  1807,  wool  bore  low  prices  in  our  country;  that  in 
1807  and  1808  full-blood  Merino  wool  sold  for  $1  a  pound; 
that  in  1809,  it  rose  to  about  $2  a  pound,  and  so  continued 
through  the  war  against  England,  commenced  in  1812  — some 
choice  lots  fetching  $2.50  a  pound ;  that  when  our  infant 

*  It  was  published  in  my  Report  on  Fine -Wool  Husbandry,  in  18C2;  and  in 
the  Boston  trade  publications  which  would  place  it  in  the  hands  of  all  the  leading 
wool  merchants  and  manufacturers. 

t  A  complete  synopsis  of  them  is  given  in  my  Report  on  Fine-Wool  Husbandry, 


TABLE    OF   WOOL   PRICES. 


manufactories  were  overthrown  at  the  close  of  that  war,  in 
1815,  it  again  sunk  to  a  low  price,  and  so  remained  until  the 
Tariff  of  1824  was  enacted. 


PRICES   CURRENT   OF   WOOL  IN  BOSTON. 


Tariff  and 
time  of 
taking 
effect. 

June  30. 

•s. 

Sept.  1. 

"3 
fa 

March  3. 

£ 

Dec,  31. 

I 

Year.                    Quarter  ending 
1824    January, 

Fine. 

Medium. 

OOOTBO. 

March 

70 

45 

33 

f*\y,  ::::::::'.::::  :::::::::" 

October,          ...  .  ....  . 

60 

40 
45 

30 
33 

60 

April, 

July, 

October 

1826.  January,  

40 
27 
33 
28 
30 
26 
25 
25 
28 
33 
31 
35 
30 
30 
27 
30 
32 
40 
47 
47 
60 
60 
50 
45 
40 
30 
30 

April,  

62 

45 
30 
38 
33 
36 
31 
32 
30 
36 
40 
40 
45 
35 
35 
31 
35 

50 
60 
60 
60 
63 
60 
55 
50 
40 
40 

June,  ......  ..          .... 

37 

October,  ...  ..           .... 

44 

37 

April, 

44 

July, 

36 

42 

April,    .. 

44 

July,                              

48 

October,  .....  . 

47 

55 

April, 

43 

July 

38 

1830.  January,  

40 

October,  

70 

April 

70 

July,  

75 

October,  

70 

65 

April 

60 

July 

60 

50 

1833.   January, 

April. 

55 
55 
60 
55 
50 
50 
M 
58 
58 
58 
58 
58 
60 
60 
60 
60 

40 
42 
42 
87 

42 
45 
47 
42 
40 
40 
40 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
50 
50 
50 
50 

33 
35 
36 
82 

July,        

62 

October, 

65 

1834.  January, 

70 

April, 

65 

July,  ... 

eo 

October, 

.      .        60 

1835.  January,. 

60 

April,    . 

65 

July/. 

65 

October, 

65 

1836.  January, 

65 

April,  . 

65 

July, 

70 

October, 

70 

70 

April,  

July, 

October, 

50 

1838.  January,  .                          ..... 

60 

April,... 

50 

July,  ... 

45 

TABLE   OF  WOOL  PEICES. 


Tariff  and 
time  of 
taking 
effect. 

Year.                    Quarter  ending 

Fine. 

Medium. 

48 

Coarse. 
37 

1839.  January,      .        ...        ..    . 

65 

48 

38 

April,        .  .                   . 

55 

48 

38 

July, 

58 

60 

40 

October,  

60 

62 

46 

1840.  January,           

60 

45 

April,  

48 

41 

36 

July, 

46 

38 

S3 

46 

38 

33 

1841.  January 

62 

45 

87 

April,  

52 

45 

37 

October  1. 

October, 

60 

48 

44 

41 

35 
S3 

1842.   January,           

48 

43 

35 

'"-"oS 

April, 

46 

42 

33 

£°3 

July, 

.  43 

38 

31 

October, 

37 

31 

26 

1843.  January 

85 

30 

25 

April,  

34 

29 

25 

October,  .. 

35 
39 

30 
32 

26 
26 

. 

1844.   January  

37 

31 

26 

1 

April 

45 

37 

30 

July 

45 

37 

81 

0 

October 

60 

42 

83 

M 

1845.  January,  

45 

38 

31 

I 

April,  

45 

40 

38 
35 

33 
30 

Serv:::::::;:::::::::::::::: 

38 

34 

28 

1846.  January,  

April, 

40 

38 

35 
33 

30 
28 

July, 

38 

33 

28 

Dec  1 

October 

36 

30 

22 

1847.  January, 

47 

38 

30 

April,  

47 

40 

31 

July, 

47 

40 

31 

October, 

...                    47 

40 

30 

1848.  January 

45 

38 

30 

April,  

43 

37 

30 

July,  

88 
33 

33 

30 

28 
22 

1849.  January,  

30 

23 

April, 

42 

36 

30 

July, 

...        40 

35 

28 

October 

42 

36 

SO 

1850.  January, 

47 

40 

33 

April 

45 

38 

31 

45 

88 

32 

35 

1851.  January,    

37 

32 

April, 

50 

44 

40 

o? 

July, 

47 

42 

37 

1 

October,  

45 

40 

83 

"3 

1852.   January,  
ApriL           

42 

37 
36 

32 
31 

to 

July,           .......        ........ 

.......  .          45 

38 

32 

October, 

JR..           50 

42 

37 

EH 

1853.  January, 

68 

65 

60 

April,  

62 

65 

50 

Julv,- 

60 

53 

48 

October,  . 

65 

60 

48 

1854.  January, 

63 

47 

42 

April,      

57 

62 

44 

July, 

45 

37 

30 

41 

36 

32 

1855.   January, 

40 

35 

32 

94 


TABLE    OF   WOOL   TKICES. 


Tariff  and 
time  of 
taking 
effect. 

year.                    Quarter  ending 

Fine. 
60 

.....:.    62 

1856.  January,  

60 
67 

July,  

60 

1857    January, 

68 

April, 

60 

July, 

66 

October  

:"::::    sa 

1858.  January,  

40 

April,                 

.42 

• 

July 

1 

65 

1859.  January,  

60 

5; 

April, 

60 

July, 

66 

•£ 

October,... 

60 

IH 

1860.  January,  

60 

April,    .... 

..     -.        52 

July, 

55 

October, 

50 

1861.  January,  . 

45 

April  1 

r           April,  

45 

July,  .          .                      ... 

.      ..        40 

£*=? 

October,  

47 

Medium,    Coarse. 


From  the  beginning  of  1827,  from  which  the  above  prices 
present  the  averages  of  each  quarter,  to  the  close  of  1861,  a 
period  of  35  years,  the  average  price  of  fine  wool  was  50  3-10 
cents;  of  medium,  42  8-10  cents;  of  coarse,  35£  cents.  Fine 
wool  averaged  15  per  centum  higher  than  medium,  and 
medium  14  per  centum  higher  than  coarse. 

The  wools  classed  in  the  table  as  fine,  included  Saxon, 
grade  Saxon,  and  choice  lightish -fleece  American  Merino ; 
the  medium  included  American  Merino  and  grade  down,  say 
to  half  blood;  the  coarse  included  wools  one -fourth  blood 
Merino  and  below.  Each  of  these  classes,  of  course, 
embraced  wools  of  various  qualities  and  prices. 

The  lessons  to  be  derived  from  this  table  are  most 
valuable  to  the  wool  grower.  How  very  striking,  for 
example,  is  the  fact  that  during  thirty- eight  years  —  and  with 
all  the  disturbing  causes  to  the  wool  market  which  have  been 
alluded  to — there  has  not  been  a  single  year  in  which  the 
average  prices  for  the  wools  marked  medium  in  the  table 
would  not  now  paylhe  actual  cost  of  producing  our  heavy 
fleeced  American  Merino  wools;  and  that  there  have  not 
been  more  than  half  a  dozen  years,  when  those  prices  would 
not  be  decently  remunerative !  Of  the  production  of  how 
many  other  of  our  great  staples  of  industry  can  as  much 
be  said? 


A-tfD  EXPORTS   OF  WOOL. 

g.  g-  g-  §•  g-  g-  g-  §•§•  g-  g-  g-  g-  g-  g-  §•§•§•  I  g-  g* 


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gg  DEMAND   AND    SUPPLY   OF   WOOL. 

Will  this  steady  demand  and  these  remunerating  prices 
last?  Here  again  the  facts  and  figures  of  the  past  afford  the 
most  trustworthy  answer.  The  table  on  preceding  page  was 
prepared  for  me  in  1862,  by  the  acting  Register  of  the 
Treasury. 

It  is  thus  made  to  appear  that  during  the  twenty-two 
years  which  preceded  the  present  war,  our  imports  of  unman- 
ufactured wool  exceeded  our  exports  of  the  home -grown 
article  in  the  value  of  $44,514,771,  or  upwards  of  two 
millions  a  year;  and  that  during  the  same  period,  our 
imports  of  manufactured  wool  exceeded  our  exports  of 
domestic  manufactured  wool  in  the  value  of  $429,422,951,  or 
upwards  of  nineteen  millions  a  year ! 

There  have  been  during  the  above  period  several 
"manias,"  as  they  have  been  termed,  as  strong  as  that  of 
1862 -'63,  to  increase  wool  production  in  our  country;  yet, 
in  spite  of  all  contemporary  predictions  to  the  contrary,  we 
see  how  utterly  they  failed  in  every  instance  to  bring  up, 
even  temporarily,  the  supply  to  the  demand.  When  eveiy 
circumstance  is  taken  into  account,  there  cannot  be  a 
reasonable  doubt  entertained,  that  the  United  States  can 
permanently  furnish  its  own  markets  with  a  full  supply  of 
wool  more  cheaply  than  other  countries  can  furnish  it.  I  have 
not  space  here  for  the  numerous  facts  and  statistics  which 
go  to  prove  this  assertion;  nor  is  there  need  of  it,  they 
have  been  so  fully  set  forth  and  discussed  in  a  multitude 
of  popular  publications,  particularly  in  those  invaluable 
disseminators  of  information,  our  Agricultural  Journals. 
Indeed,  we  might  even  compete  with  other  countries  in 
supplying  wool  to  Europe.  And  yet,  with  such  facts  staring 
us  in  the  face,  there  are  so  many  other  demands  for  capital, 
labor  and  enterprise  in  our  country,  that  we  continue  and 
are  likely  to  continue,  no  one  can  say  how  long,  vast 
importers  of  one  of  the  prime  necessaries  of  life ! 

Sheep  are  not  only  the  most  profitable  animals  to 
depasture  the  cheap  lands  of  our  country  —  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  South,  and  the  vast  plains  of  the  West  and 
South-west  —  but  they  are  also  justly  beginning  to  be 
considered  an  absolute  necessity  of  good  farming  on  our 
choice  grain -growing  soils,  where  wheat,  clover  seed,  etc., 
are  staples. 

I  may  be  permitted  to  quote  the  two  following  paragraphs 
from  my  Report  on  Fine -Wool  Husbandry,  1862: — "Sheep 
would  be  more  profitable  than  cows  on  a  multitude  of  the 


ADVANTAGES   OF   SHEEP   HUSBANDRY.  97 

high,  thin -soiled  dairy  farms  of  New  York;  and  every 
person  who  has  kept  the  two  animals  ought  to  know  that 
sheep  will  enrich  such  lands  far  more  rapidly  than  cows.  On 
the  imperfectly  cleared  and  briery  lands  of  our  grazing 
regions,  sheep  will  more  than  pay  for  their  summer  keep,  for 
several  years,  merely  in  clearing  and  cleaning  up  the  land. 
They  effectually  exterminate  the  blackberry  (Rubus  villosus 
et  trivialis,)  and  raspberry  (Rubus  strigosus  et  occidentalis,} 
the  common  pests  in  such  situations,  and  they  banish  or 
prevent  the  spread  of  many  other  troublesome  shrubs  and 
weeds.  They  also,  unlike  any  other  of  our  valuable  domestic 
animals,  exert  a  direct  and  observable  influence  in  banishing 
coarse,  wild,  poor  grasses  from  their  pastures  and  bringing 
in  the  sweeter  and  more  nutritious  ones-"  It  was  a  proverb 
of  the  Spaniards: — "Wherever  the  foot  of  the  sheep  touches, 
the  land  is  turned  into  gold." 

"  And  the  growth  of  wool  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
pecuniary  means  and  the  circumstances  of  a  portion  of  our 
rural  population.  Their  capital  is  mostly  in  land.  Hired 
labor  is  costly.  Sheep  husbandry  will  render  all  their  cleared 
land  profitably  productive  at  a  less  annual  expenditure  for 
labor  than  any  other  branch  of  farming.  By  reason  of  the 
rapid  increase  of  sheep,  and  the  great  facility  of  promptly 
improving  inferior  ones,  they  will  stock  a  farm  well,  more 
expeditiously,  and  with  far  less  outlay,  than  other  animals. 
And,  lastly,  the  ordinary  processes  and  manipulations  of 
sheep  husbandry  are  simple  and  readily  acquired.  On  no 
other  domestic  animal  is  the  hazard  of  loss  by  death  so  small. 
It  is  as  healthy  and  hardy  as  other  animals,  and  unlike  all  the 
others,  if  decently  managed,  a  good  sheep  can  never  die  in 
the  debt  of  man.  If  it  dies  at  birth,  it  has  consumed  nothing. 
If  it  dies  the  first  whiter,  its  wool  will  pay  for  its  consumption 
up  to  that  period.  If  it  lives  to  be  sheared  once,  it  brings  its 
owner  into  debt  to  it,  and  if  the  ordinary  and  natural  course 
of  wool  production  and  breeding  goes  on,  that  indebtedness 
will  increase  uniformly  and  with  accelerating  rapidity  until 
the  day  of  its  death.  If  the  horse  or  the  steer  die  at  three 
or  four  years  old,  or  the  cow  before  breeding,  the  loss  is 
almost  a  total  one." 

The  cost  of  producing  wool  depends  upon  that  of  keeping 
sheep,  and  this  necessarily  varies  greatly  in  different 
situations.  On  the  highest  priced  lands  in  New  York  and 
New  England  on  which  sheep  are  now  usually  kept  for  wool 
growing  purposes,  it,  under  judicious  systems  of  winter 
6 


98  PROFITS   OF   WOOL  PRODUCTION. 

management,  reaches  about  $2  a  head  per  annum.  In 
extensive  regions  of  the  South  and  South-west  it  is  mainly 
comprised  in  the  expense  of  herding,  salting,  and  shearing, 
and  where  the  number  of  sheep  kept  is  large,  does  not 
exceed  25  cents  a  head.  But  it  would  be  more  profitable  in 
those  regions  to  provide  some  kind  of  shelter  and  give  a 
little  feed  in  the  height  of  winter,  and  this  would  increase 
the  cost  of  keeping  to  50  cents  a  head.  In  some  of  our 
Western  and  North-western  States,  where  sheep  can  have  the 
run  of  lands  belonging  to  the  Government  or  to  non-resident 
owners,  in  addition  to  those  owned  by  the  flock- master,  the 
cost  of  keeping,  including  winter  shelter,  ranges  from,  say, 
75  cents  to  $1  a  head.  In  intermediate  situations,  between 
the  densely  populated  and  high-priced  lands  of  the  East  and 
the  broad,  sparsely  inhabited  prairies  of  the  West  and  South- 
west, (open  without  price  to  the  temporary  occupant,)  and 
between  the  warm  South  where  vegetation  flourishes  almost 
throughout  the  year,  and  the  cold  North  where  winter  feeding 
lasts  from  five  to  five  and  a  half  months,  the  cost  of  keeping 
will  occupy  every  intermediate  place  between  these  extremes. 
Every  experienced  and  sensible  man  acquainted  with  all  the 
special  circumstancs,  is  the  best  judge  of  that  cost  in  his 
own  locality. 

Improved  Merino  flocks  of  breeding  ewes  should  average 
five  pounds  of  washed  wool  per  head  in  large  flocks.  Medium 
wool  has  sold  on  an  average  for  42  8-10  cents  per  pound  for 
the  thirty-five  years  preceding  the  high  prices  of  the  present 
war.  This  gives  $2.14  to  the  fleece,  which  should  pay  for 
the  cost  of  keeping,  anywhere,  and  leave  the  owner  the  lambs 
and  manure  for  his  profit.*  The  increase  of  lambs  will 
average  about  eighty  per  centum  on  the  whole  number  of 
the  breeding  ewes.f  The  value  of  the  manure  would  greatly 
vary  in  different  situations.  It  may  interest  many  to  know 
how  it  is  estimated  in  England.  Mr.  Spooner  says  : 

"  Four  hundred  South  Down  sheep  are  sufficient  to  fold 
twenty  perches  per  day,  or  forty -five  acres  per  year,  the 

*  If  he  keeps  wethers,  he  has  for  his  profit  their  growth  and  about  a  dollar  from 
each  fleece.  Wethers'  fleeces  should  be  worth  about  a  dollar  a  piece  more  than  ewes' 
fleeces. 

1 1  gave  this  as  the  average  fifteen  years  ago.  With  the  improvement  in  sheep 
shelters,  etc.,  it  ought  now  to  be  higher.  But  a  few  usually  fail  to  get  with  lamb  and 
occasionally  there  comes  a  "dying  year"  for  lambs  — when  they  are  born  feeble 
goltred,  rheumatic,  or  subject  to  some  other  maladies,  so  that  they  perish  in  extraor- 
dinary numbers.  This  was  quite  generally  the  case  in  New  York  in  the  spring  of  18(12. 
Taking  a  term  of  years  together,  I  doubt  whether,  under  average  management,  the 
increase  by  lambs  yet  exceeds  80  per  cent. 


PROFITS    OF    WOOL    PRODUCTION". 

value  of  which  is  therefore  about  £90  per  year,  or  4s.  6d.  per 
sheep.  *  *  Three  hundred  sheep  have  in  this  manner 
(with  '  a  standing  fold  on  some  dry  and  convenient  spot,  well 
littered  with  straw  or  stubble,')  produced  eighty  large  cart- 
loads of  dung  between  October  and  March,  and  in  this 
manner,  after  the  expenses  have  been  deducted,  each  sheep 
has  earned  3d.  per  week." 

A  hundred  Merino  sheep,  given  abundance  of  bedding, 
will,  between  December  1st  and  May  1st,  make  at  least  forty 
two -horse  loads  of  manure  —  and  if  fed  roots,  considerably 
more.  I  scarcely  need  to  say  that  both  the  summer  and 
winter  manure  of  the  sheep  is  far  more  valuable  than  that 
of  the  horse  or  cow.*  Its  manure  on  high-priced  land  which 
requires  fertilizers,  cannot  be  estimated  at  less  than  50  cents 
per  head  per  annum,  and  I  should  be  inclined  to  put  it 
still  higher. 

The  value  of  the  lambs  and  manure  is  the  minimum  of 
profit.  That  profit  increases  just  as  the  market  value  of  land 
and  the  cost  of  keeping  decreases.  On  the  rich  plains  of 
the  West  and  South-west,  manure  is  not  yet  reckoned  among 
the  appreciable  profits,  and  the  cost  of  transporting  wool  to 
market  is  from  one  to  two  cents  per  pound.  The  Western 
grower,  then,  gets  the  lamb  and  about  half  the  fleece,  as  the 
profit  on  each  sheep.  The  Texan  grower  gets  the  lamb  and 
about  three-quarters  of  the  fleece,  and  so  on.  I  do  not 
deduct  the  extra  prices  paid  from  time  to  time  for  rams, 
because  each  good  one  vastly  more  than  pays  for  himself  in 
increasing  the  value  of  the  flock. 

The  prices  of  lambs  of  different  blood  and  in  different 
places,  vary  too  much  to  admit  of  even  an  approximately 
uniform  rate  of  estimating  them.  But  it  does  not  anywhere 
cost  more  to  raise  a  full  -  blood  than  a  grade  Merino  lamb. 

*  Horses  are  not  used  as  depasturing  animals  in  any  of  the  older  States.  The 
following  remarks  appeared  in  my  Report  on  Fine-Wool  Husbandry,  1862 :  —  "  If  milch 
cows  are  not  returned  to  their  pastures  at  niirht  in  summer,  or  the  manure  made  in  the 
night  is  not  returned  to  the  pastures,  the  difference  in  the  two  animals  in  the  particular 
named  in  the  text,  is  still  greater.  Even  grazing  cattle  kept  constantly  in  the  pastures, 
and  whose  manure  is  much  better  than  that  of  dairy  cows,  are  still  greatly  inferior  to 
the  sheep  in  enriching  land.  The  manure  of  sheep  is  stronger,  better  distributed,  and 
distributed  in  a  way  that  admits  of  little  loss.  The  small  round  pellets  soon  work 
down  among  the  roots  of  the  grass,  and  are  in  a  great  measure  protected  from  sun  and 
wind.  Each  pellet  has  a  coat  of  mucus  which  still  further  protects  it.  On  taking  one 
of  these  out  of  the  grass,  it  will  be  found  the  moisture  is  gradually  dissolving  it  on  the 
lower  side,  directly  among  the  roots,  while  the  upper  coated  surface  remains  entire. 
Finally,  if  there  are  hill  tops,  dry  knolls,  or  elevations  of  any  kind  in  the  pasture,  the 
sheep  almost  invariably  lie  on  them  nights,  thus  depositing  an  extra  portion  of  manure 
on  the  lenst  fertile  part  of  the  land,  and  where  the  wash  of  it  will  be  less  wasted.  The 
manure  of  the  milch  cow,  apart  from  its  intrinsic  inferiority,  is  deposited  in  masses 
which  give  up  their  best  contents  to  the  atmosphere  before  they  are  dry  enough  to  be 
beaten  to  pieces  and  distributed  over  the  soil." 


100  PROFITS    OF    MUTTOX    PKODUCTIOX. 

Good  grades  have  averaged  about  $2  per  head  in  the  fall 
for  a  number  of  years  and  the  increasing  demand  for  them 
by  the  butchers  is  steadily  raising  the  price.  Estimating  80 
per  cent,  of  lambs  and  50  cents  a  head  for  manure,  each 
sheep  would  thus  average  in  both  products  $2.10 — just  about 
the  equivalent  of  the  fleece ;  so  that  it  would  be  equally 
well,  on  high-priced  lands  requiring  fertilizers,  to  say 
that  the  lambs  and  manure  pay  the  cost  of  keeping,  and 
the  fleece  is  to  be  reckoned  as  the  profit.  According  to  the 
first  computation,  lands  worth  $50  per  acre  would  give  their 
owner  a  profit  of  seven  per  cent,  if  they  would  support  a 
little  over  one  and  three -fifths  sheep  to  the  acre;  and  that 
would  be  indifferent  grazing  land,  where  the  domesticated 
grasses  are  grown,  and  under  proper  systems  of  winter 
keeping,  which  would  not  support  three  sheep  to  the  acre. 
It  would  be  a  very  moderate  estimate,  taking  a  term  of  years 
together,  to  put  full  blood  American  Merino  lambs  —  even 
from  flocks  of  no  especial  reputation  and  not  kept  for  what 
is  technically  designated  "breeding  purposes" — at  double 
the  price  of  grade  lambs.  They  are  now  worth  at  least  three 
times  as  much. 

The  prospect  of  the  future  demand  for  mutton  has  been 
sufficiently  considered.  I  had  hoped  to  be  able  to  present 
an  exhibit,  in  details,  of  the  cost  and  profits  of  its  production 
based  on  actual  experiments.  But  I  have  been  disappointed ; 
and  I  will  only  reiterate  the  statement  that  the  experience  of 
England,  and  of  portions  of  our  own  country,  has  clearly 
demonstrated  that  in  regions  appropriate  for  its  production, 
it  is  a  more  profitable  leading  object  of  production  than  wool. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

PBINCIPLES  AND  PEAOTICE  OP  BBEEDIUG, 

BREEDING,  in  its  technical  sense,  as  applied  to  the 
reproduction  of  domesticated  animals  under  the  direction 
of  man,  is  the  art  of  selecting  such  males  and  females  to 
procreate  together  as  are  best  adapted,  in  conjunction,  to 
produce  an  improved  and  uniform  offspring.  The  first  and 
most  important  fact  to  be  kept  in  view,  in  pursuing  the  object 
of  breeding,  is  that  result  of  a  fixed  natural  law  which  is 
expressed  in  the  phrase,  "  like  produces  like."  The  painted 
oriole  now  flashing  among  the  apple  blossoms  before  my 
Avindow  wears  the  same  bright  dyes  that  were  worn  by  the 
oriole  ages  ago.  But  the  breeding  maxim  just  quoted,  is 
understood  to  assert  more  than  that  species  and  varieties 
continue  to  reproduce  themselves :  it  implies  that  the  special 
individual  characteristics  of  parents  are  also  transmitted  to 
progeny.  This  is  the  prevailing  rule,  but  it  has  a  broad 
margin  of  exceptions  and  variations.  Animals  are  oftentimes 
more  or  less  unlike  their  parents,  yet  inherit  a  very  distinct 
resemblance  to  remoter  ancestors  —  sometimes  to  those 
several  generations  back.  This  is  termed  "  breeding  back." 
And,  moreover,  where  the  resemblance  is  to  the  immediate 
progenitors,  the  mode  of  its  transmission  is  not  uniform. 
Sometimes  the  progeny  is  strongly  like  one  parent  and 
sometimes  like  the  other  ;  sometimes,  and  perhaps  oftenest,  it 
bears  a  modified  resemblance  to  both. 

The  physiological  causes  or  laws  which  control  the 
hereditary  transmission  of  physical  forms  and  properties  — 
which  determine  the  precise  structure  which  the  embryo  shall 
assume  in  the  womb,  and  give  to  each  animal  a  distinct 
individuality  which  will  accompany  it  through  life  and 
distinguish  it  from  every  other  animal  of  the  same  breed  and 
family  —  have  not  yet  been,  and  probably  never  will  be, 
fully  understood.  Nor  can  we,  by  the  closest  study  of 
analogies  or  precedents,  learn  to  anticipate  their  action  with 


102  PKINCIPLES    AND   PKACTICE    OP    BKEEDING. 

absolute  certainty.  Yet,  by  a  proper  course"  of  breeding, 
we  can  control  that  action  to  a  considerable  degree;  we 
can  generally  keep  it  in  channels  which  are  favorable  to  our 
wishes;  we  can  avoid  manifold  evils  which  arise  from 
promiscuous  procreation;  and  a  few,  more  gifted  or  more 
zealous  in  the  attainment  of  their  objects  than  the  rest  of  vte, 
can  make  permanent  improvements  in  the  forms  and  properties 
of  our  domestic  animals,  and  thus  confer  important  benefits 
on  society. 

If  the  male  and  female  parent  possess  the  same  given 
peculiarity  of  structure,  or  in  breeders'  phrase,  the  same  good 
or  bad  "point,"  the  chances  are  very  strong  that  the  progeny 
will  also  possess  it,  because  the  progeny  is  most  likely  to 
inherit  the  structure  of  its  immediate  progenitors ;  and 
whether  it  receives  that  portion  of  the  structure  from  one  or 
the  other  of  them,  or  partly  from  both,  it  still  receives  the 
same  peculiar  form.  If  all  the  remoter  ancestors  also 
possessed  the  same  point,  then  the  progeny  must,  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  nature,  be  sure  to  inherit  it,  for  let  it 
breed  back  to  whatever  ancestor  it  may,  it  must  inherit  the 
same  conformation.  This  law  applies  to  properties  as  well 
as  forms.  Hence  it  is  that  in  breeding  between  pure  blood 
animals  of  the  same  breed  and  family,  we  find  like  producing 
like,  so  far  as  the  family  likeness  is  concerned,  in  steady  and 
endless  order,  and  this  necessarily  includes  a  good  deal  of 
individual  likeness.  Indeed,  it  is  this  long  continued 
preservation  and  transmission  to  descendants  of  the  same 
properties  by  one  family  that  constitutes  "blood,"  in  its 
technical  sense  —  and  its  "  purity  "  is  its  utter  isolation  from 
the  blood  of  all  other  families.  The  full  blood,  or  pure 
blood,  or  thorough-bred  animal  —  for  all  these  terms  imply 
the  same  thing*  —  can  inherit  from  its  parents,  or  take 
from  its  remoter  ancestors  by  breeding  back,  only  the  same 
family  characteristics. 

But  in  breeding  between  mongrels  —  animals  produced 
by  the  crossing  of  different  breeds  —  the  closest  resemblance 
of  the  parents  in  any  point  not  common  to  both  breeds,  does 
not  insure  the  transmission  of  their  characteristics  in  that 
point  to  their  offspring ;  for  the  offspring  may  obtain  different 
ones  by  breeding  back  to  either  of  the  ancestors  with  which 
the  cross  commenced,  or  to  some  intermediate  and  partially 

*  At  least,  as  they  are  used  in  this  volume.  An  effort  has  been  made  in  some 
without1  an  iutroduc-e  a  diatinctioii  between  these  significations,  but,  in  my  judgment, 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PBACTICE    OP    BREEDING.  103 

assimilated  ancestors.  This  occasional  breeding  back  and 
consequent  divergence  from  the  existing  type,  is  liable  to 
continue  for  a  great  number  of  generations ;  and  it  can  only 
be  repressed  by  a  long  and  uniform  course  of  breeding,  and 
by  a  rigorous  "  weeding  out "  —  that  is,  exclusion  from 
breeding  —  of  every  animal  exhibiting  a  tendency  toward 
such  divergence. 

We  cannot  always,  among  either  pure  bloods  or  mongrels, 
breed  from  perfect  or  approximately  perfect  individuals,  or 
those  which  are  alike  in  their  structure  and  properties. 
Necessity  sometimes,  and  economy  frequently,  requires  us  to 
make  use  of  materials  which  we  would  not  voluntarily  select 
for  the  purpose.  In  such  cases,  it  should  always  be  the  aim 
of  the  breeder  to  counteract  the  imperfection  of  one  parent  by 
the  marked  excellence  of  the  other  parent  in  the  same  point. 
If,  for  example,  a  portion  of  the  ewes  of  a  flock  are  too  short- 
wooled,  they  should,  other  things  being  equal,  be  coupled 
with  a  particularly  long-wooled  ram. 

The  hereditary  predispositions  of  breeding  animals  are 
also  to  be  regarded,  as  well  as  their  actual  existing  charac- 
teristics. In  the  case  just  given,  if  the  long-wooled  ram  was 
descended  from  uniformly  short-wooled  ancestors,  his  length 
of  wool  would  be  what  is  termed  an  "  accidental "  trait  or 
property;  and  there  would  be  little  probability  of  his 
transmitting  it  with  uniformity  and  force  to  his  offspring  out 
of  short-wooled  ewes.  There  would  be  no  certainty  of  his 
doing  so,  even  among  long-wooled  ewes. 

What  are  considered  accidental  characteristics  are  them- 
selves generally  the  result  of  breeding  back  to  a  forgotten 
ancestor,  but  sometimes  they  are  purely  spontaneous.  In 
such  cases,  they  are  exceptions,  not  to  be  accounted  for  by 
any  of  the  known  laws  of  reproduction.  As  a  general  thing 
they  are  not  transmitted  to  posterity.  In  other  cases  they 
are  feebly  transmitted  to  the  first  generation  and  then 
disappear.  But  occasionally  they  are  very  .vigorously  repro- 
duced, and  if  cultivated  by  inter  -  breeding,  the  related 
animals  possessing  them  soon  become  fixed  in  their  de- 
scendants apparently  as  firmly  as  the  old  and  long -established 
peculiarities  of  breed.*  The  following  is  an  instance  of  this, 

*  It  is  claimed  that  artificial  peculiarities  even  —  those  produced  by  external 
causes  after  birth  —  are  sometimes  inherited,  as  for  example,  a  limb  distorted  by 
accident.  To  this  extent,  I  suspect  the  genuine  cases  of  inheritance,  are  very  rare. 
But  habitual  artificial  properties,  and  to  some  extent,  structures,  marks  etc.,  not  unfre- 
quently  become  hereditary.  If,  for  example,  men  or  brutes  are  kept  healthy  and 
vigorous  for  several  generations,  by  proper  food  and  exercise,  they  will  have  more 
vigorous  oflspring  than  the  descendants  of  the  same  ancestors  improperly  fed  and 


104  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE    OF    BREEDING. 

which,  so  far  as  the  facts  occurred  in  the  United  States,  fell 
under  my  own  observation.  A  ram  having  ears  of  not  more 
than  a  quarter  the  usual  size  appeared  ill  a  flock  of  Saxon 
sheep,  in  Germany.  He  was  a  superior  animal,  and  got 
valuable  stock.  These  were  inter-bred  and  a  "little-eared" 
sub -family  created.*  Some  of  these  found  their  way  into 
the  United  States,  between  1824  and  1828.  One  of  the 
rams  came  into  Onondaga  County,  New  York.  He  was  a 
choice  animal,  and  his  owner,  David  Ely,  valued  his  small 
ears  as  a  distinctive  mark  of  his  blood.  He  bred  a  flock 
by  him,  and  gradually  almost  bred  off  their  ears  entirely. 
His  flock  enjoyed  great  celebrity  and  popularity  in  its  day, 
but  has  long  been  broken  up,  and  many  years  have  doubtless 
elapsed  since  any  of  the  surrounding  sheep  owners  have  used 
a  "  little  -  eared  "  ram.  Yet  nearly  every  flock  that  retains 
a  drop  of  that  blood  —  even  coarse  mutton  sheep  bred  away 
from  it,  probably  for  ten  or  fifteen  generations,  insomuch 
that  all  Saxon  characteristics  have  totally  disappeared  —  still 
continue  to  throw  out  an  occasional  lamb  as  distinctly 
marked  with  the  precise  peculiarity  under  consideration,  as 
Mr.  Ely's  original  stock. 

Another  much  more  important  alledged  case  in  point,  is 
that  of  the  Mauchamp  family  of  Merinos  in  France.  The 
published  accounts  of  them  declare  that,  in  1828,  "a  Merino 
ewe  produced  a  peculiar  ram  lamb  having  a  different  shape 
from  the  usual  Merino,  and  possessing  a  long,  straight,  silky 
character  of  wool,"  "  similar  to  mohair,"  and  "  remarkable 
for  its  qualities  as  a  combing  wool."  Mons.  J.  L.  Graux,  the 
owner  of  this  lamb,  bred  from  him  others  which  resembled 
him.  "In  each  subsequent  year,"  the  account  continues, 
"the  lambs  were  of  two  kinds,  ono  possessing  the  curled, 
elastic  wool  of  the  old  Merinos,  only  a  little  longer  and  finer ; 
the  other  like  the  new  breed.  At  last  the  skillful  breeder 
obtained  a  flock  combining  the  fine,  silky  fleece,  with  a 
smaller  head,  broader  flanks  and  more  capacious  chest." 
This,  excepting  in  the  matter  of  being  "finer"  than  the 
Merino,  (and  I  am  unable  to  say  what  Mons.  Graux  considers 
fine,)  is  a  pretty  good  description  of  a  mongrel  between  a 
Merino  and  some  long-wooled  variety, —  and  such  I  have  no 

enervated  by  idleness.  And  as  vigor  depends  upon  the  volume  of  the  muscle  and 
upon  the  conformation  of  both  the  muscles  and  general  frame,  it  follows  that  the 
shape  is  measurably  controlled  by  the  properties,  and  that  artificial  shapes  become 
hereditary. 

*  This  was  the  explanation  given  me  of  the  origin  of  these  sheep  by  my  lamented 
friend,  the  late  Henry  D.  Grove. 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING.  105 

doubt  it  is.  The  "accidental"  traits  which  arc  developed 
in  breeding  from  pure  animals  of  the  same  blood  never,  I 
suspect,  at  one  bound,  embrace  quite  such  comprehensive 
particulars  as  a  change,  not  only  in  the  essential  character- 
istics of  the  wool,  but  also  in  the  general  form  of  the  carcass.* 

But  trustworthy  cases  of  the  vigorous  transmission  of 
accidental  properties,  involving  visible  changes,  are  sufficiently 
numerous.  Involving  slight  changes  or  variations,  not 
recognized  as  such  by  casual  observers,  they  are  more 
numerous.  It  is  by  noting  these  last,  and  cultivating  the 
good  ones,  that  the  judicious  breeder  makes  some  of  his  best 
improvements.  How  otherwise  can  he  possibly  raise  the 
progeny,  in  any  given  point,  above  the  plane  of  its  parents, 
and  of  all  its  ancestors?  But  while  the  breeder  should  avail 
himself  of  every  opportunity  of  this  kind  to  attempt  to 
perpetuate  accidental  improvements  on  the  pre-existing  type, 
lie  must  be  prepared  to  meet  with  more  disappointments 
than  successes.  My  Merino  ram  "  Premium  " —  mentioned 
particularly  in  "Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,"  and  in 
some  other  publications,  for  his  extraordinary  individual 
qualitiesf — perhaps  the  finest  wooled  sheep  then  on  record 
for  one  of  equal  weight  of  fleece,  and  ranking  in  the  former 
particular  with  the  choicest  Saxons  —  did  not  get  progeny 
peculiar  for  fineness.  His  own  ancestors  had  been  fine  for 
the  breed,  but  not  remarkable  in  that  particular.  One  of  the 
showiest  Merino  rams  now  in  New  England  does  not  inherit 
his  showy  traits,  and  he  utterly  fails  to  transmit  them  to  his 
progeny.  Exceptional  good  qualities  are  not,  according  to 
my  observation,  as  likely  to  become  hereditary,  as  indifferent 
or  bad  ones. 

Accidental  characteristics  are  less  likely  to  be  perpetuated 
where  they  are  opposed  to  the  special  characteristics  of  the 
breed.  For  example,  the  Merino  wool  has  had  a  peculiar 
curled  or  spiral  form  of  the  fibei',  for  ages  —  a  fixed,  marked 
trait,  never  wanting,  and  as  much  a  characteristic  of  the  wool  as 
its  fineness.  Mons.  Graux's  first  straight-wooled  "  Mauchamp 
Merino"  ram,  if  an  accidental  instead  of  a  mongrel  animal, 
brought  only  his  own  individual  power  to  transmit  that 
peculiarity  to  his  progeny  (out  of  full  blood  Merino  ewes) 

*  It  will  be  seen  that  I  have  not  introduced  the  case  of  these  sheep  with  any  view 
of  illustrating:  the  transmission  of  actual  "accidental"  qualities  — but  to  caution  my 
readers  against  what  I  have  not  a  shadow  of  doubt  is  either  an  amusing  case  of 
credulity  or  a  gross  attempt  at  imposition. 

t  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,  p.  135.    American  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agricul- 
ture, 1845 ;  ib,  1846,  p.  290.    Report  ou  Fine-Wool  Husbandry,  180:2,  pp.  65,  97. 
5* 


10G  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING. 

against  a  hereditary  power  which  had  been  acquiring  force  for 
ages.*  His  success  therefore  was  the  more  marvelous.  But 
in  merely  giving  a  smaller  head,  etc.,  to  his  progeny,  he  did 
not  necessai-ily  run  counter  to  any  special  and  fixed  peculiarity 
of  breed.f  The  heads  of  Merino  steep  vary  in  size.  Some  of 
them  are  small.  A  malformation  consisting  of  small  ears,  or 
of  the  want  of  any  ears,  or  of  one  or  more  imperfect  legs,  or 
of  having  six  legs,  or  any  other  deformity,  does  not  imjnnge 
the  special  characteristics  of  a  breed,  or  of  one  breed  more 
than  another.  In  all  breeds  alike,  whether  pure  or  impure, 
there  is  a  tendency  in  nature  to  preserve  and  restore  the 
normal  form  in  the  progeny ;  but  occasionally,  as  in  the  case 
of  Mr.  Ely's  sheep,  that  tendency  is  not  strong  enough  to 
resist  the  tendency  of  like  to  produce  like. 

In  all  instances,  pains  should  be  taken  to  avoid  breeding 
between  males  and  females  possessing  the  same  defect,  and 
particularly  the  same  hereditary  defect.  In  the  first  case,  the 
individual  force  of  hereditary  transmission  in  both  parents 
unites  to  reproduce  the  defect:  in  the  second,  both  the 
individual  and  family  hereditary  force  unite  to  reproduce  it, 
and  to  escape  from  their  combined  effects  would,  of  itself,  be 
one  of  the  strongest  cases  of  "  accidental "  breeding. 

When  the  same  individual  or  family  defects  are  thus 
transmitted  by  both  parents  to  their  offspring,  the  latter  are 
apt  to  inherit  them  to  a  greater  degree  or  extent  than  they 
are  possessed  by  either  parent.  Such  an  increase  or  aggrava- 
tion may  be  regarded  as  inevitable  where  the  common  defect 
is  of  the  nature  of  an  organic  disease.  If  two  human  parents 
are  affected  by  scrofula,  and  especially  by  hereditary  scrofula, 
in  a  slight  degree,  their  progeny  may  be  expected  to  exhibit 
it  in  a  much  more  malignant  and  destructive  form.  And  the 
same  law,  in  transmitting  diseases,  or  morbific  conditions, 
pertains  equally  to  brutes.  Relationship  between  parents 
also  exerts  a  strong  influence  in  such  cases,  but  this  will  be 
more  appropriately  considered  in  the  next  Chapter. 

The  relative  influence  of  the  sire  and  dam  in  transmitting 
their  own  individual  forms  and  other  properties  to  the 
progeny,  has  been  the  theme  of  much  observation  and 
discussion.  The  prevalent  opinion  formerly  was  that  each 

*  But  if  he  was  a  mongrel,  he  brought  the  hereditary  influence  of  straight-wooled 
and  probably  pure  blood  ancestors  to  bear  again*  tlmt  of  his  Merino  ancestors,  and  by 
breeding  in-and-in,  and  by  selection,  he  was  made  to  give  the  preponderance  to  the 
former  in  the  particular  under  consideration. 

MauchMtT6  "°  -deflnite  or  reliable  information  in  regard  to  the/onw  of  head  in  the 


PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   BREEDING.  107 

parent  transmitted  a  portion  of  all  the  properties,  or  a  trait 
here  and  a  trait  there,  as  chance  or  some  special  and 
independent  power  in  each  animal  to  "  mark "  its  offspring, 
might  dictate.  An  English  gentleman  by  the  name  of  Orton, 
broached  the  theory  that  the  animal  organization  is  trans- 
mitted by  halves,  the  sire  giving  to  the  progeny  the  external 
organs  and  locomotive  powers,  and  the  dam  the  internal 
organs  and  vital  functions.  By  this  division,  the  general 
form,  the  bones,  the  external  muscles,  the  legs,  skin  and  wool 
would  be  like  those  of  the  male  parent,  while  the  heart,  lungs 
and  other  viscera,  and  consequently  those  functions  on  which 
the  integrity  of  the  constitution  mainly  rests,  would  he  like 
those  of  the  female  parent.  But  each  parent  was  supposed  by 
him  to  exert  a  degree  of  influence  on  the  parts  and  functions 
chiefly  inherited  from  the  other  parent;  and  this  law  "of 
limitations"  he  considered  "scarcely  less  important  to  be 
understood  than  the  fundamental  law  itself." 

Mr.  Walker,  in  his  work  on  Intermarriage,  presents  the 
same  theory,  substantially,  except  that  he  denies  that  the 
series  of  organs  inherited  from  one  parent  are  modified  or 
influenced  by  the  other  parent ;  and  he  assumes  that  between 
parents  of  the  same  breed,  "either  the  male  or  the  female 
parent  may  give  either  series  of  organs."* 

Mr.  Spooner,  in  an  article  on  Cross-Breeding,  which  appear- 
ed in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England 
some  years  since  the  publication  of  his  well  known  work  on 
Sheep,  adopts  the  Ortonian  theory  with  some  slight  modi- 
fications. He  says: — "The  most  probable  supposition  is  that 
propagation  is  done  by  halves,  each  parent  giving  to  the 
offspring  the  shape  of  one-half  of  the  body.  Thus  the  back, 
loins,  hind  quarters,  general  shape,  skin  and  size  follow  one 
parent ;  and  the  fore  quarters,  head,  vital  and  nervous 
system,  the  other ;  and  we  may  go  so  far  as  to  add,  that  the 
former,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  go  with  the  male  parent 
and  the  latter  with  the  female."f 

The  Ortonian  theory,  or  either  of  the  above  modifications 
of  it,  if  actually  carried  into  practice,  would  lead  to  singular 
results.  According  to  Mr.  Orton,  the  effects  of  cross-breeding 
would,  comparatively  speaking,  stop  with  the  first  cross,  for 
each  succeeding  generation  of  cross-bred  males  and  females 
would  continue  to  transmit  to  their  descendants  substantially 


*  Vide  pp.  142,  145. 

t  Journal  of  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  1859. 


108  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING. 

the  same  halves,  in  the  same  order,  both  with  respect  to  form 
and  general  properties.* 

According  to  Mr.  Walker  the  effects  of  crossing,  among 
animals  of  different  breeds,  would  generally  absolutely  stop  and 
become  unchangeable  with  the  first  cross,  for  every  generation 
of  descendants  would  receive  the  same  half  of  the  organization 
without  any  modification  !  And  on  the  other  hand,  between 
animals  of  the  same  breed,  the  descendants  might  either 
permanently  exhibit  the  same  relative  paternal  and  maternal 
halves,  or  they  might  by  in-and-in  breeding,  in  the  second 
generation,  become  exactly  like  their  sire  in  both  halves  !  f 

The  theory  of  propagation  by  halves  appears  to  have 
considerable  support  from  facts  when  it  is  applied  to  hybrids  — 
animals  derived  from  int«r-brecding  distinct  species,  —  as  for 
instance  the  male  ass  with  the  mare,  the  horse  with  the  female 
ass,  the  goat  with  the  sheep,  etc.  But  as  applied  to  sheep, 
every  observing  breeder  ought  to  know  that  it  is  essentially 
unfounded  and  chimerical.  The  Merino  ram  crossed  with  a 
ewe  of  some  thin  and  coarse-wooled  family,  does  not,  either 
fully  or  approximately,  transmit  the  weight,  fineness  or  other 


*  If  this  were  so,  half  bloods,  when  bred  together,  would  reproduce  their  own 
essential  qualities  about  as  uniformly  as  full  bloods  when  bred  together;  and  the 
attempt  to  form  them  into  permanent  families,  occupying  the  same  relative  place  they 
do  between  the  original  breeds  of  which  they  are  composed,  should  result  in  as  splendid 
success  as  it  does,  in  point  of  fact,  in  complete  and  uniform  failure.  And  by  this  theory, 
it  would  seem  the  half  blood  ram  ought  always  to  be  used  to  perpetuate  half  bloods  — 
yet  experience  shows  that  half  blood  rams  are  worthless  for  that  object.  I  never  have 
seen  anything  more  than  extracts  from  Mr.  Orton's  paper  on  this  subject.  I  do  not 
therefore  know  what  exceptions  he  made  for  breeding  back.  He  must  of  course  have 
regarded  it  as  only  the  exception,  or  else  he  could  not  have  assumed  any  set  of  facts 
opposed  to  it  to  be  the  rule.  Then,  in  his  view,  a  majority  at  least  of  the  descendants 
of  half  bloods,  bred  to  half  bloods,  or  to  mongrels  of  their  own  degree,  would 
continue  uniformly  to  produce  their  own  essential  characteristics,—  which  every 
observing  breeder  knows  they  do  not  do. 

t  Mr.  Walker  says  :  —  "  Let  the  example  be  that  in  which,  of  the  animals  subjected 
to  in-and-in  breeding,  the  father  breeds  with  the  daughter,  and  again  with  the  grand- 
daughter. Now,  it  is  certain  the  father  gives  half  his  organization  to  the  daughter, 
(suppose  the  anterior  series  of  organs.)  and  so  far  they  are  identical  ;  but,  in  breeding 
with  the  daughter,  he  may  give  the  other  half  of  his  organization  to  the  grand-daughter, 
(namely,  the  posterior  series  of  organs.)  and  as  the  grand-daughter  will  then  have  both 
his  series  of  organs  —  the  former  from  the  mother  and  the  latter  from  himself  —  it  is 
evident  that  there  exists  between  the  male  and  his  grand-daughter  a  quasi  identity. 
[  p.  210.  ] 

Mr.  Spooner  does  not  develop  his  views  very  fully,  but  so  far  as  he  states  them, 
he  would  appear  to  adopt  Mr.  Walker's  theory  of  a  strict  propagation  by  halves,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  assume,  by  implication,  that  either  parent  may  give  either  series  of 
organs,  in  all  cases,  as  Mr.  Walker  only  assumes  they  may  among  animals  of  the  same 
breed.  If  these  are  Mr.  Spooner's  real  opinions,  he  must  be  prepared  to  believe  that 
results  like  the  following  may  ensue  :—  If  a  Merino  ram  was  put  to  a  Leicester  ewe  he 
would  transmit  half  of  his  organization  to  their  common  progeny.  If  the  same  ram 
was  put  to  his  own  half-blood  daughter  of  that  cross,  he  might  give  the  other  half  of 
his  organization  to  the  progeny,  so  that  it  would  be,  de  facto,  a  pure  Merino.  This 
would  be  a  very  summary  process  of  creating  pure  Merinos  out  of  Leicesters  !  If  the 
same  rule  held  good  in  regard  to  horses,  an  Arabian  stallion  might  in  two  generations 
produce  pure  Arabian  stock  from  cart  mares  !  Is  Mr.  Spooner  prepared  to  adopt  such 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING.  109 

qualities  of  his  fleece  to  his  progeny.  He,  it  is  true,  transmits 
a  fleece  which  is  much  heavier  and  finer  than  that  of  the  ewe ; 
and  if  again  crossed  with  the  half-blood,  he  transmits  addi- 
tional weight  and  fineness.  Each  ascending  grade  toward  the 
Merino  will  continue  more  and  more  to  resemble  the  Merino 
in  these  particulars.  But  the  process  is  gradual,  not  immediate ; 
the  properties  are  transmitted  by  degrees,  not  by  halves. 

The  Ortonian  theory,  as  applied  to  the  transmission  of 
form,  in  sheep,  has  a  little  more  apparent  foundation.  The 
ram  does,  much  oftener  than  the  ewe,  transmit  his  general 
external  structure  to  the  progeny.  But  the  hypothesis  that 
lie  does  so  as  invariably  as  Mr.  Orton  contends,  or  as  Mr. 
Walker  contends  in  the  case  of  crosses  between  different 
breeds,  or  even  as  generally  as  Mr.  Spooner  supposes,*  will 
fall  to  the  ground  at  once  when  examined  in  the  light  of  actual 
facts.  In  any  and  every  flock  of  lambs,  whether  pure  blood 
or  crossed,  there  will  be  found  entirely  too  many  to  be  classed 
as  mere  exceptions,  which,  without  breeding  back  of  their 
immediate  parents,  do  take  the  general  form  of  the  dam,  and 
not  that  of  the  sire.  And  it  will  also  be  found  that  the 
instances  which,  even  by  the  most  liberal  resort  to  imagina- 
tion, can  be  adduced  as  proofs  of  the  theory  of  a  strict 
transmission  by  halves,  and  of  such  a  division  of  those  halves 
as  the  advocates  of  the  theory  have  agreed  on,  do  not 
comprise  a  majority  of  cases.  In  my  judgment,  they  do  not 
include  a  fourth  of  them;  and  could  scarcely  be  shown 
conclusively  to  include  any.  As  a  general  thing  we  see 
distinct  resemblances  to  each  parent,  or  modified  resemblances 
to  both  parents,  existing  in  different  proportions  in  the  form, 
the  fleece  and  the  skin.  One  lamb  has  a  carcass  mostly  like 
that  of  its  sire  and  a  fleece  mostly  like  that  of  its  dam.  f 
Another  takes  a  middle  place  between  its  parents  in  one  or 
both  particulars.  Another  actually,  to  some  degree,  divides 
the  form,  taking,  for  example,  the  shoulders  of  the  dam  with 
the  hind  quarters  of  the  sire,  or  vice  versa.  I  have  a  specific 
case  in  view  of  a  ram  ("  21  per  cent.,")  which  has  a  shoulder 
obviously  defective  in  being  too  thin.  He  transmits  most  of 
his  form,  his  fleece,  etc.,  to  his  progeny,  with  marked  force. 
But  not  one  in  thirty  of  them  exhibits  a  thin  shoulder.  By 

*  I  mean  making  all  due  allowance  for  breeding  back,  or  for  an  exceptional  want 
of  relative  vigor  in  the  male,  &c.,  &c. 

1 1  think  it  is  not  common  to  see  these  two  characteristics  quite  so  broadly  divided ; 
and  probably  never,  when  the  pure  blood  ram  is  coupled  with  the  cross-bred  ewe. 
But  with  both  those  pure  and  cross-breeds  which  most  resemble  their  sires  in  form,  it 
is  common  to  see  the  fleece  at  least  equally  partaking  of  the  characteristics  of  the  dam. 


110  PRINCIPLES   AND   PBACTICK    OF   BREEDING. 

the  half-and-half  theory,  all  this  would  be  impossible. 
According  to  that  theory,  all  these  characteristics  belong  to 
the  same  half  of  the  organization,  which  is  always  transmitted 
as  an  entirety  by  one  parent  or  the  other. 

But  it  is  easier  to  defend  the  half-and-half  theory,  so  far 
as  it  pertains  to  the  viscera  and  internal  organization,  because 
it  is  very  difficult  to  follow  it  there  !  I  do  not  see  how  a 
really  reliable  decision  can  be  arrived  at  except  by  a  practical 
ocular  examination  of  the  parts,  and  it  is  not  easy  to 
understand  how  even  the  dissecting  knife  would  let  in  much 
light  on  the  subject.  In  healthy  animals,  it  is  not  probable 
that  any  particular  and  persistent  differences  could  be 
discovered  in  the  viscera,  except  in  the  mere  particular  of 
size,  and  in  this,  the  theory  would  not  be  likely  to  derive  any 
support  from  a  comparison  of  facts.*  If  it  be  contended  that 
internal  structure  is  to  be  judged  or  inferred  by  certain 
effects  —  such  as  constitution,  strength,  appetite,  etc.,  I 
undertake  to  say,  from  abundant  experience,  that  the  progeny 
as  often  and  as  fully  inherit  these  qualities  from  the  sire  as 
from  the  dam,  even  when  they  most  distinctly  inherit  the 
general  form  of  the  sire. 

I  have  pursued  this  subject  at  greater  length,  because  I 
have  observed'  that  too  many  men  who  have  the  word 
"practical"  ever  on  their  lips  (who  seem  to  consider 
themselves  practical  on  all  agricultural  subjects,  because  they 
work  practically  with  their  own  hands  on  a  farm!)  are  always 
ready  to  adopt  the  most  baseless  theories  :  and  I  consider  the 
Ortonian  theory  as  mischievous  as  it  is  baseless. 

I  have  said  that  the  ram  much  the  oftenest  gives  the 
leading  characteristics  of  the  form ;  and  I  will  now  add,  that 
he  much  the  oftenest  gives  the  size,  and  several  of  the 
leading  properties  of  the  fleece,  particularly  its  length, 
density,  and  yolkiness.  Its  fineness  and  general  style  are 
probably  usually,  other  things  being  equal,  as  much  con- 
trolled by  the  dam  as  by  the  sire.  But  I  do  not  believe  the 
superior  power  of  the  ram  to  transmit  his  own  qualities  is 
purely  an  incident  of  sex.  I  believe  co-operating  causes  are 
equally  potential,  and  that  the  chief  of  these  are  superiority 
of  blood,  and  superiority  of  individual  vigor. 

*  I  suppose  that  if  a  large  ram  were  put  to  a  small  ewe,  and  as  usual  gave  his  size 
(comparatively  )>to  the  progeny,  the  size  of  the  viscera  would  necessarily  follow  the  size 
of  the  sires  because  the  viscera  always  correspond  with  the  size  of  the  external  struc 
tures  and  of  the  cavity  to  be  filled.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ewe  gave  the  size  of 
carcass  she  would  also  give  the  size  of  the  viscera.  This  is  exactly  at  variance  with 
the  Ortonian  theory,  if  the  size  of  the  intestines  is  one  of  those  properties  said  to  be 
given  by  that  parent  which  does  not  give  the  size  and  form. 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING.  Ill 

The  ram  is  generally  "  higher  bred "  than  the  ewes,  even 
in  full  blood  flocks.  As  pure  blood  is  only  separate  family 
blood  which  has  been  kept  distinct  until  it  transmits  but 
one  set  of  family  chai'acteristics,  so  higher  blood  is  produced 
by  the  selection  of  pure  blood  animals  of  choicer  qualities 
and  breeding  them  together  separate  and  distinct  from  all 
others,  until  they  form  a  smaller  improved  sub-family,  alike 
possessing  a  permanent  hereditary  character.  The  thin-chined, 
low  fore-ended,  roach  -  backed,  black  -  faced  sheep  which 
formerly  depastured  the  downs  of  Sussex,  were  of  as  pure 
blood  as  the  superb  South  Downs  which  Mr.  Ellman  created 
out  of  them  —  but  they  were  not  so  highly  or  well  bred. 
The  improved  South  Down  ram  of  to-day  does  not  transmit 
the  same  properties  to  his  progeny  which  the  unimproved 
animal  of  eighty  years  ago  did.  He  not  only  transmits 
better  ones,  but  he  transmits  them  with  more  force  and 
uniformity.  This  last  is  occasioned  by  two  circumstances. 
The  restriction  of  the  sub -family  for  a  number  of  generations 
to  one  fixed  standard,  gives  greater  force  of  hereditary- 
transmission  to  the  fewer  properties  —  that  is,  fewer  in 
kind  —  which  that  standard  admits  of,  because  by  that  law 
on  which  "blood"  or  "species"  rests,  the  oftener  the  same 
quality  is  reproduced,  the  stronger  becomes  its  tendency  to 
continued  reproduction.  The  improved  South  Down  breeds, 
so  to  speak,  to  one  uniform  pattern.  The  unimproved  one 
breeds  to  a  dozen  different  varieties  of  a  family  pattern. 
The  second  circumstance  which  gives  a  stronger  power  of  strict 
hereditary  transmission  to  the  high-bred  animal,  consists  (after 
the  improved  family  becomes  thoroughly  established)  in  the  re- 
striction placed  on  the  limits  of  breeding  back.  The  unimproved 
South  Down  could  breed  back  to  fifty  different  ancestors,  all 
differing  quite  widely ;  the  improved  one,  unless  he  casually 
goes  far  back  of  the  ordinary  limits  of  breeding  back,  can 
only  breed  back  to  ancestors  of  very  close  resemblance. 

If  the  pure  blood  ram  is  put  to  grade  ewes  of  different 
and  no  determinate  blood,  his  strong  power  of  hereditary 
transmission  is  encountered  by  no  corresponding  power  on 
the  other  side,  and  the  resemblance  of  the  progeny  to 
himself  is  unexpectedly  striking,  considering  that  they  are 
but  half  of  the  same  breed.  If  put  to  full  blood  ewes  of 
his  own  breed,  but  lower  bred  than  himself,  the  resemblance 
to  himself  is  much  less  marked,  though  it  is  still  very 
perceptible.  If  put  to  ewes  of  the  same  breed  and  as  high 
bred  as  himself,  the  resemblance  to  himself  is  still  fainter 


112  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING. 

and    considerably  less     uniform.      In     these    last,    he    has 

encountered  a   force  of  hereditary  transmission  equal  to  his 

own,  except  in  so  far  as  he  is  aided  by  supei'ior  power  of  sex. 

Persons  who  buy  rams,  generally  buy  from  flocks  better 

bred  than  their  own,  and  hence  is  witnessed  that  assimilation 

of  the  progeny  to  the  sire,  and  consequently  that  improve- 

ment, which  is  by  some  referred  exclusively  to  sex,  and  by 

others  to  some  inherent  property  to  "  mark  "  his  offspring 

supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  sire.     This  hypothesis  is  not 

overthrown  by  the  notorious  fact  that  rams  from  the  same 

flock    exhibit    the    power    of    hereditary    transmission    in 

essentially  different  degrees,  any  more  than  is  the  hypothesis 

of  the  superior  influence  of  the  male  sex  overthrown  by  the 

same  fact.     Every  flock  has   separate   and   bettor  strains  of 

blood  within  itself  —  even  where  all  are  descended  from  the 

same   stock.     Not    only   better    males    occasionally   present 

themselves,  but  also  better  females.     If  the  latter  are  found 

to  transmit  their  own  properties  in  a  special  degree  to  their 

offspring,  they  are  highly  prized  and  carefully  reserved  fr,om 

all  sales.     Each  female  descendant  is  prized  and  reserved  in 

the  same  way,  and  a  sub-family  is  thus  created.     Avouch  of 

in-and-in  breeding  (by  using  a  ram  from  the  same  sub-family 

on  his  relatives,  as  well  as  on  the  rest  of  the  flock,)  frequently 

aids  to  confer  an  identity  on  this  little  group  of  sheep  which 

preserves  itself  for  generations  —  as  long  as  the  flock  is  kept 

together.     I  am  not  acquainted  with  a  celebrated  breeding 

flock  which  has  not  within  it  several  such  recognized  groups 

or   sub  -families  of  different  value,  but  all  better  than  the 

body  of  the  flock.     This  explains  how  rams  of  the  same  blood 

and  flock,  and  perhaps  general  appearance,  may  differ  materi- 

ally in  their  qualities  as  sires,  without  imagining  the  existence 

of  an  independent  faculty  based  on  no  physical  properties. 

There   is    still    another    circumstance   which   affects   the 

power    of    hereditary     transmission,    viz.,    vigor,  —  general 

physical  vigor,  and  also  special  sexual  vigor.     A  very  strong, 

powerfully  developed  ram,  full  of  power  and  vital  energy  — 

and  full  of  untiring   sexual   ardor  —  Avill   get   stronger   and 

better  lambs  and  impress  his   own  qualities  on  them  more 

strongly  than  an  ill,  or  feeble,  or  flaccid  ram,  with  naturally 

weak   or   exhausted    sexual    powers.     The    ram    should  be 

essentially  masculine    in    every   organ    and  function.*    He 


*  Large  testicles,  and  large,  firm  Spermatic  cords  connecting  these  with  the  body, 

m.     The  capacit 
n  this  particular. 


,  , 

are  regarded  as  indications  of  sexual  vigor  in  the  ram.     The  capacity  to  "  bear  heavy 
feed"  has  also  much  to  do  with  a  ram's  endurance  i 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING.  113 

should  not  even  have  what  is  termed  a  "  ewe's  fleece,"  but  a 
longer,  thicker  and   coarser  one.* 

The  Merino  ram  produces  strong,  healthy  lambs  from  the 
age  of  seven  or  eight  months  to  that  of  eight  or  ten  years, 
and  sometimes  later,  if  he  has  never  been  over-worked.  He 
does  not  attain  his  full  maturity  of  vigor  until  he  is  three, 
and  he  usually  begins  to  decline  at  seven  or  eight.  A  ram 
lamb  ought  not,  for  his  own  good,  to  be  used  to  over  ten 
or  fifteen  ewes — merely  enough  to  test  his  qualities  as  a  sire  ; 
and  to  fit  him  properly  for  even  this  amount  of  work,  he 
should  be  large,  strong,  and  fleshy.  A  yearling  can,  without 
injury,  do  one-third  and  a  two-year-old  two-thirds  the  work 
of  a  mature  ram.  Strong,  mature  rams  will,  on  the  average, 
properly  serve  about  two  hundred  ewes  a  year.  I  speak 
in  all  the  above  cases  of  but  a  single  service  to  each  ewe, 
and  of  a  coupling  season  extending  from  forty  to  forty-five 
days.  Rams  have  often  exceeded  these  numbers.  An 
Intantado  ram  lamb  owned  by  Loyal  C.  Wright,  of  Corn- 
wall, Vermont,  got  one  hundred  and  three  lambs  in  the 
fall  of  1862.  The  "Wooster  Ram,"  so  celebrated  through- 
out Vermont,  served  three  hundred  ewes  when  a  year 
old.f  Some  strong  rams,  in  their  prime,  have  served 
four  hundred.  The  "Old  Robinson  Ram"  is  believed  to 
have  got  nearly  three  thousand  lambs  during  his  life  of 
thirteen  or  fourteen  years.  The  Merino  ewe  breeds  from 
her  second  to  her  tenth  or  twelfth  year,  and  sometimes 
considerably  longer,  if  carefully  nursed  after  she  begins  to 
decline.  J  It  is  better  for  her,  however,  not  to  breed  until 
her  third  year.  Some,  however,  who  have  valuable  ewes, 


*  A  ram  of  the  same  blood  and  breeding  does  not  require  to  be  as  fine  as  a  ewe, 
to  get  female  progeny  equal  to  her  in  fineness ;  and  an  over-fine  ram  generally  gets  too 
light-fleeced  progeny.  His  own  fineness,  unless  an  exceptional  quality,  shows  that  he 
has  been  bred  too  far  in  the  direction  of  fineness,  and,  consequently,  away  from  the 
proper  standard  of  weight,  for  the  maximum  of  these  two  qualities  in  the  same  fleece 
is  not  even  approximately  attainable.  If  the  over-fine  ram  has  himself  a  fleece  of 
good  weight,  it  is  to  be  apprehended— in  the  absence  of  a  full  knowledge  of  antecedents 
—  that  the  latter  quality  is  exceptional,  and  that  he  may  breed  too  much  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

t  So  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Abel  J.  Wooster,  of  West  Cornwall,  Vermont.  He 
purchased  the  ram  of  Mr.  Hammond  when  a  lamb— and  hence  the  name  of  "  Wooster 
Ram,"  or  rather,  according  to  a  prevailing  Americanism,  "Wooster  Buck."  Some 
Merino  breeders  who  find  this  name  in  the  pedigrees  of  their  sheepmay  be  interested 
to  learn  the  following  particulars  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Wooster.  The  ram 
never  exceeded  about  100  Ibs.  weight  with  his  fleece  off.  His  first  fleece  weighed  12M 
Ibs.,  his  second  19,l£  Ibs.,  and  "  after  that  he  began  to  run  down,"  and  died  before  the 
completion  of  his  fourth  year.  "He  would  bear  heavy  feed,  and  that  and  hard  ser- 
vice shortened  his  life." 

t  I  stated  in  my  Report  on  Fine- Wool  Husbanry,  1862,  that  I  had  been  informed 
that  the  dam  of  the  "  Old  Robinson  Ram  "  produced  a  lamb  in  her  twenty-second 
year.  I  have  since  ascertained  that  I  was  misinformed  on  the  subject. 


114  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   BREEDING. 

put  them  to  breeding  at  two,  but  take  off  their  lambs  and 
give  them  to  foster-mothers.  If  the  young  ewe  is  carefully 
dried  off  her  milk,  she  will  experience  no  injury  and  no  loss 
of  growth.  The  increase  of  growth  during  pregnancy 
will  make  up  for  the  slight  falling  off  after  yeaning. 
The  English  breeds  both  mature  and  decline  considerably 
earlier  in  life. 

A  theory  of  considerable  importance  to  the  breeder,  if 
true,  has  recently  been  started,  viz.,  that  the  male  which  first 
impregnates  a  female,  continues  to  exert  an  influence  on 
some  of  the  qualities  of  her  subsequent  offspring,  or  at  least 
is  liable  to  do  so.  I  have  not,  in  my  own  expeiience, 
observed  any  proofs  of  this.* 

It  has  been  a  prevailing  opinion  among  American  breeders 
that  it  is  much  better  to  breed  between  a  small  male  and 
large  female,  than  in  the  contrary  direction.  The  reason 
assigned  by  Mr.  Cline,  of  England,  who  first,  I  think, 
publicly  advanced  this  view,  was  that  the  fetus  begotten 
by  the  larger  male  has  not  room  to  expand  and  develop 
itself  properly  in  the  womb  of  the  small  female ;  that  it  does 
not  obtain  sufficient  nutrition  from  stores  intended  for  a 
smaller  fetus;  and  that,  in  consequence  of  these  things,  it 
can  not  obtain  its  normal  size  and  proportions  anterior 
to  birth :  secondly,  that  it  is  liable  on  account  of  its  extra 
size  to  cause  difficulty,  if  not  danger  to  its  dam  in  yeaning ; 
and  finally,  that  the  opposite  course,  by  giving  the  fetus 
unusual  room  and  extra  nutriment,  tends  to  its  most  perfect 
development.  This  is  probably  true  as  between  different 
breeds,  where  the  disparity  in  size  is  extreme,  as,  for 
instance,  between  the  Saxon  Merino  ewe  and  the  Cots  wold 
ram.  I  would  not  expect  a  greatly  overgrown  ram  to  get 
as  good  stock  as  a  more  moderate  sized  one,  even  on  ewes 
of  the  same  breed,  but  it  would  be  quite  as  much  for 
another  reason  as  for  any  of  the  preceding  ones,  viz.,  that 
these  overgrown  animals  never  possess  the  highest  attainable 
amount  of  vigor  and  general  excellence  themselves,  and  are 
not  therefore  fitted  for  sires,  irrespective  of  relative  size. 
But  the  rule  should  not  be  extended  to  the  exclusion  of 
large  rams  of  the  breed,  if  good  in  other  particulars.  Nature 
adapts  herself  unexpectedly  to  circumstances,  in  the  face  of 
all  theories.  Constant  and  recent  experiments,  in  England, 

*  Those  who  wish  to  see  the  facts  and  arguments  which  are  set  forth  to  support 
this  theory  will  find  them  in  Mr.  S.  L.  Goodale's  interesting  work  on  the  Principles  of 
Breeding,  published  in  1861. 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF   BREEDING.  115 

in  crossing  ewes  with  the  rams  of  much  larger  breeds  (to 
obtain  large  lambs  for  the  butcher)  demonstrate,  as  has  been 
already  seen,  that  the  prevailing  fears  on  this  subject  have 
been  somewhat  exaggerated.* 

*  The  Down  or  New  Leicester  ram  is  coupled  with  almost  any  of  the  smaller 
sized  local  varieties  for  the  purpose  of  getting  larger  and  earlier  maturing  lambs  for 
the  market.  The  very  small  and  hornless  heads  of  the  Down  and  New  Leicester 
lambs,  it  is  true,  peculiarly  fit  them  for  easy  and  safe  parturition ;  but  in  other 
respects,  they  are  exposed  to  all  the  disadvantages  of  disproportioned  size  before  and 
after  birth,  and  these  are  not  found  sufficient,  in  practice,  to  prevent  the  crosses  from 
proving  highly  profitable  for  the  objects  in  view. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

BKEEDING  IN-AND-IN, 

BREEDING  in-and-in  is  ordinarily  understood,  in  our 
country,  to  mean  breeding  between  relatives,  without 
reference  to  the  degree  of  consanguinity ;  and  I  shall 
therefore  use  it  in  that  sense  in  this  work,  specifying,  when 
there  is  occasion,  whether  the  degree  of  consanguinity  is 
close  or  remote.  But  this  is  not  the  sense  in  which  it  has 
been  used  by  those  eminent  European  writers  who  have  done 
so  much  to  plant  an  inveterate  prejudice  against  its  very 
name  in  the  public  mind.  Sir  John  Sebright  ranks  among 
the  highest  of  these,  and  he  did  not  consider  procreation 
between  father  and  daughter,  and  mother  and  son,  to  be 
breeding  in-and-in!  Breeding  between  brother  and  sister 
he  thought  might  "  be  called  a  little  close,"  but  "  should  they 
both  be  very  good,  and  particularly  should  the  same  defects 
not  predominate  in  both,  but  the  perfections  of  the  one 
promise  to  correct  in  the  produce  the  imperfections  of  the 
other,  he  did  not  think  it  objectionable ! "  And  again,  he 
says  breeding  in-and  in  "  may  be  beneficial,  if  not  carried  too 
far,  particularly  in  fixing  any  variety  which  may  be  thought 
valuable."  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Sir  John  does  not 
define  what  he  considers  to  be  in-and-in  breeding.  I  apprehend 
that  he  means  by  it  breeding  the  father  with  the  daughter 
and  again  with  the  grand-daughter,  or  the  mother  with  the 
son  and  again  with  the  grand-son.  In  all  the  distinguished 
British  works  I  have  ever  perused  on  the  subject,  I  have  found 
the  same  lack  of  definitions.  The  authors  evidently  vary  in 
the  meaning  they  attach  to  the  term,  but  I  think  I  can 
confidently  say  that  none  of  them  make  it  include  br$ding 
between  all  relatives,  or  object  to  breeding,  when  there  is 
occasion  for  it,  between  relatives  not  of  near  consanguinity. 

It  is  a  very  prevalent  impression  in  the  United  States, 
particularly  among  those  who  have  no  personal  experience 
on  the  subject,  that  the  inter-breeding  of  the  most  remote 


BREEDING    IN-AND-IN.  117 

relatives  is  fatal  —  fatal  not  only  to  the  physical  organization, 
but  to  the  mind  among  human  beings,  and  even  to  the 
instinct  among  brutes. 

It  was  stated  in  the  preceding  Chapter  that  when 
hereditary  disease  or  a  predisposition  toward  it,  exists  in 
either  parent,  there  is  always  danger  that  it  will  be  trans- 
mitted to  offspring,  and  that  if  the  disease  or  predisposition 
exists  in  both  parents,  that  danger  is  greatly  increased.  If 
the  parents  be  nearly  related  to  each  other,  the  danger  of 
transmission  is  virtually  converted  into  certainty,  with  an 
aggravation  of  the  conditions  and  increased  incurableness  in 
the  malady.  Consequently  when  mankind  degenerated  from 
their  original  physical  perfection — when  disease  entered  the 
world  and  predispositions  to  it  became  engrafted  in  the 
human  system  —  the  Divine  Lawgiver  made  cohabitation 
within  certain  degrees  of  affinity  a  crime  by  prohibition. 
But  if  it  was  evil  in  itself  (rnalum  in  se)  why  was  it  not 
prohibited  to  the  immediate  descendants  of  our  first  parents, 
and  why  were  not  unrelated  human  beings  created  to  avoid 
its  necessity  ?  The  peopling  of  the  world  in  the  second 
generation  at  least,  was  necessarily  carried  on  between 
brothers  and  sisters,  the  closest  possible  relations.  Can  it  be 
supposed  that,  under  the  direct  ordination  of  Omnipotence, 
the  human  race  originated  in  a  crime  against  nature  —  in  an 
extreme  violation  of  the  fundamental  laws  which  regulate 
physical  and  mental  well  being? 

The  brute,  it  is  fair  to  assume,  was  started  in  its  course  of 
procreation  equally  unrestricted,  for  it  would  understand  no 
prohibition;  and  it  was  created  with  habits  which  must 
constantly  and  necessarily  lead  to  cohabitation  and  breeding 
between  the  nearest  relatives.  Some  varieties  of  birds,  like 
the  dove,  are  hatched  in  pairs,  one  of  each  sex,  and  with 
habits  which  would  render  the  separation  of  those  pairs,  for 
procreation,  the  exception  instead  of  the  rule.  Some  varieties 
of  quadrupeds,  like  the  lion,  are  born  and  brought  up  in 
isolated  families ;  and  having  no  aversion  to  breeding  between 
relatives,  it  would  be  most  natural  that  those  who  thus  live 
together  should  at  maturity  pair  together.  In  herds  of 
elephants,  wild  horses,  buffaloes,  etc.,  particular  males 
dominate  over  the  same  herd  for  years,  and  make  it  their 
harem  until  they  become  enfeebled  and  are  conquered  by 
some  more  youthful  and  more  vigorous  rival  —  probably  a 
son  —  who  in  turn  dominates,  decays  and  gives  place  to  a 
successor.  In  this  course  of  things,  the  father  must  be 


118  BREEDING    IN -AND -IK. 

constantly  breeding  with  his  own  daughters,  and,  if  he  lives 
long  enough,  with  his  grand  -  daughters ;  and  his  male 
successors  must  commence  breeding  with  sisters  and  continue 
it  with  their  descendants.  All  these  animals  are,  de  facto, 
paired  together  by  that  Being  who  created  their  instincts  and 
gave  them  their  habits.  Is  there  any  visible  proof  that  their 
races  have  become  physically  degenerate  on  this  account? 
Are  not  the  lion  and  the  elephant  as  large,  healthy  and 
powerful  as  they  were  ages  ago? 

No  one  pretends  to  the  contrary.  But  we  are  told  — 
and  this  was  Sebright's  argument  —  that  a  natural  provision 
was  also  made  to  prevent  animals  from  degenerating  from  the 
effects  of  in-and-in  breeding.  "  A  severe  winter,  or  a  scarcity 
of  food,  by  destroying  the  weak  and  the  unhealthy,  has  all 
the  good  effects  of  the  most  skillful  selection."  And  he  might 
have  added,  that  the  strong  male  kills  the  weak  male,  the  herd 
trample  down  the  sick  and  the  feeble,  and  gore  to  death  the 
wounded.  Such  causes,  undoubtedly,  combine  to  extirpate 
what  may  be  termed  accidental  degeneracy.  But  these  facts 
do  not  go  far  enough  to  sustain  the  position  of  those  who 
believe  that  in-and-in  breeding  necessarily  results  in  degen- 
eracy. If  it  did,  instead  of  a  few,  the  whole  or  nearly  the 
whole  flock  or  herd  or  family,  in  such  cases  as  I  have 
mentioned,  would  perish ;  and  whole  races  would  long  since 
have  become  extinct. 

The  moment  we  step  from  the  domain  of  nature  to  the 
domain  of  man,  the  scene  changes.  We  have  treated  our 
domesticated  animals  as  we  have  treated  ourselves.  By 
artificial  surroundings  —  by  changing  the  natural  habits  in 
regard  to  nutrition,  exercise,  etc.  —  by  cruelty  or  kindness  — 
by  breeding  the  diseased  with  the  healthy  —  we  have  brought 
malformation,  infirmity,  disease  and  premature  death  among 
all  of  them;  and  we  have  continued  the  causes  until  we  have 
made  the  effects  a  part  of  the  physical  systems,  and  thoroughly 
hereditary  among  them.  Therefore  no  longer,  like  the  free 
normal  denizens  of  the  forest  and  the  air,  can  they  follow 
their  natural  instincts  with  impunity ;  and  the  inter-breeding 
of  the  infirm  and  diseased,  and  especially  of  infirm  and 
diseased  relatives,  must,  as  in  the  case  of  man,  be  prevented. 
But  all  the  facts  I  have  ever  seen  or  ascertained  from 
entirely  reliable  sources,  go  to  show  that  the  inter-breeding  of 
relatives,  and  even  near  ones,  is  innocuous  when  both  parents 
are  free  from  all  defects  and  infirmities  which  tend  to  impair 
the  normal  physical  organization.  It  is  difficult  to  improve 


BREEDING   IN-AND-IN.  119 

animals,  give  them  a  marked  family  uniformity,  and  give 
their  peculiar  excellencies  a  permanent  hereditary  character, 
without  in-and-in  breeding.  Consequently  a  great  majority 
of  the  ablest  breeders  of  domestic  animals  of  every  description 
in  England  —  such  as  Bake  well  among  long-wooled  sheep; 
Ellman  among  short-wooled  sheep  ;  the  Collings,  Mason, 
Maynard,  Wetherell,  Knightly,  Bates  and  the  Booths  among 
Short-Horn  cattle;*  Price  among  the  Herefords,f  and  a 
multitude  of  others  of  nearly  equal  celebrity  —  have  been 
close  in-and-in  breeders.  The  Stud  Book  abounds  in  examples 
of  celebrated  horses  produced  by  this  course  of  breeding. 
The  same  is  true  of  nearly  all  the  improved  English  varieties 
of  smaller  animals,  such  as  pigs,  rabbits,  fowls,  pigeons,  etc. 
But  we  need  not  go  abroad  for  examples.  The  Paular 
sheep  of  the  Rich  family  were  first  crossed  in  1842.  They 
were  then  pre-eminently  hardy.  No  one  claims  that  they 
have  gained  either  in  hardiness  or  size  by  the  cross.  Yet 
for  thirty  years  preceding  that  period,  they  had  been  bred 
strictly  in-and-in,  to  say  nothing  of  their  previous  in-and-in 
breeding  in  Spain.  Whether  and  how  far  the  Spaniards  aimed 
to  avoid  breeding  from  very  close  individual  relationships  I 
am  not  informed.  I  have  never  learned  that  they  paid  any 
attention  to  them  one  way  or  the  other  ;  and  their  general 
course  of  breeding  was  certainly  in-and-in.  Each  Cabana,  or 
permanent  flock,  was  kept  entirely  free  from  admixture  with 


*  I  quote  the  following  from  a  note  in  my  Report  on  Fine-Wool  Husbandry,  1862  : 
"In  the  first  volume  of  American  Short-Horn  Herd  Book  (edited  by  Lewis  F.  Allen, 
Esq.,)  are  diagrams  showing  the  continuous  and  close  in-and-in  breeding  which  pro- 
duced the  bull  Comet,  by  far  the  most  superb  and  celebrated  animal  of  his  day,  and 
which  sold,  at  Charles  Ceiling's  sale  for  the  then  unprecedented  price  of  $5,000.  His 
pedigree  cannot  be  stated  so  as  to  make  the  extent  of  the  in-and-in  breeding,  of  which 
he  was  the  result,  fully  apparent,  except  to  persons  familiar  with  such  things,  and  such 
persons  probably  need  no  information  on  the  subject.  But  this  much  all  will  see  the 
force  of:  the  bull  Bolingbroke  and  the  cow  Phenix,  which  were  more  closely  related 
to  each  other  than  half-brother  and  sister,  were  coupled  and  produced  the  bull 
Favorite.  Favorite  was  then  coupled  with  his  own  dam  and  produced  the  cow  Young 
Phenix.  He  was  then  coupled  with  his  own  daughter  (Young  Phenix)  and  their  pro- 
duce W4is  the  world-famed  Comet.  One  of  the  best  breeding  cows  in  Sir  C.  Knightly'a 
herd  (Restless)  was  the  result  of  still  more  continuous  in-and-in  breeding.  I  will  state 
a  part  of  the  pedigree.  The  bull  Favorite  was  put  to  his  own  daughter,  and  then  to 
his  own  grand-daughter,  and  so  on  to  the  produce  of  his  produce  in  regular  succession 
for  six  generations.  The  cow  which  was  the  result  of  the  sixth  inter-breeding,  was 
then  put  to  the  bull  Wellington,  "  deeply  inter-bred  on  the  side  of  both  sire  and  dam 
in  the  Mood  of  favorite,  and  the  produce  was  the  cow  Clarissa,  an  admirable  animal 
and  the  mother  of  Restless.  Mr.  Bates,  whose  Short-Horns  were  never  excelled  (if 
equaled)  in  England,  put  sire  to  daughter  and  grand-daughter,  son  to  dam  and  grand- 
dam,  and  brother  to  sister,  indifferently,  his  rule  being  'always  to  put  the  best 
animals  together,  regardless  of  any  affinity  of  blood,'  as  A.  B.  Allen  informs  me  he 
distinctly  declared  to  him,  and  indeed  as  his  recorded  practice  in  the  Herd  Book  fully 
proves." 

t  Mr.  Price,  whose  Herefords  were  the  best  in  England  in  his  day,  declared,  in  an 
article  published  in  the  British  Farmer's  Magazine,  that  he  had  not  gone  beyond  his 
own  herd  for  a  bull  or  a  cow  for  forty  years. 


120  BBEEDING   IN-AND-IN. 

others,  and  its  stock  rams  were  selected  from  its  own  number. 
Consequently  fathers  and  daughters,  and  brothers  and  sisters 
must  have  constantly  bred  with  each  other.  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain's Silesians  have  not  received  any  cross,  or  any  fresh  blood 
from  either  of  the  original  families,  within  half  a  century ; 
yet  they  are  50  per  cent,  larger  than  the  sheep  they  originated 
from  and  are  entirely  healthy.  Mr.  Hammond's  Infantados 
present  a  still  stronger  case.  They  were  bred  in-and-in 
by  Col.  Humphreys  up  to  the  period  of  Mr.  Atwood's 
purchase ;  Mr.  Atwood  bred  his  entire  flock  from  one  ewe^ 
and  never  used  any  but  pure  Humphreys  rams;  Mr.  Ham- 
mond has  preserved  the  same  blood  entirely  intact  —  and 
thus,  after  being  drawn  beyond  all  doubt  from  an  unmixed 
Spanish  Cabana,  they  have  been  bred  in-and-in,  in  the 
United  States,  for  upwards  of  sixty  years.  Fortunately  Mr. 
Hammond  has  preserved  some  of  his  leading  individual 
pedigrees,  and  I  will  give  one  of  these  as  a  most  forcible 
illustration  of  the  subject  under  examination.  For  that 
purpose  I  will  select  the  pedigree  of  Gold -Drop,  one  of  his 
present  stock  rams.  It  includes  that  of  Sweepstakes  —  the 
ram  figured  in  the  frontispiece  —  and  has  the  advantage  of 
exhibiting  the  course  of  breeding  for  two  generations  later. 
The  pedigree  is  given  on  next  page. 


PEDIGREE    OP   GOLD -DROP   AND   SWEEPSTAKES.  121 


122  BBEEDING   IN -AND- IN". 

It  will  be  seen  that  Gold -Drop,  after  the  recurrence  of 
seven  generations,  traces  every  drop  of  his  Wood  to  two 
rams  and  three  ewes,  purchased  of  Mr.  Atwood !  A  careful 
study  of  this  pedigree  will  disclose  a  closeness  of  in-and-in 
breeding  which  will  surprise  most  persons,  and  will  surprise  a 
portion  of  them  the  more  in  view  of  the  fact  that  Mr. 
Hammond's  whole  flock  has  been  bred  with  the  same  disre- 
gard of  consanguinity,  and  yet  all  the  time  since  his  purchase 
of  its  foundation,  has  been  increasing,  not  only  in  amount  of 
wool,  but  in  size,  bone,  spread  of  rib,  compactness,  easiness 
of  keep ;  in  short,  in  all  those  things  which  indicate  improved 
constitution.  Nor  has  there  been  the  least  tendency  toward 
that  barrenness  which  has  been  thought  by  some  to  be  one  of 
the  results  of  in-and-in  breeding.* 

Every  one  who  draws  rams  from  his  own  flock  and 
breeds  from  the  best,  will  inevitably  find  himself  a  close 
in-and-in  breeder.  The  best  beget,  the  best.  If  a  ram  of 
surpassing  excellence  as  a  sire  arises  and  makes  a  decided 
improvement  in  the  flock,  he  is  of  course  coupled  with  the 
best  ewes,  and  all  the  choicest  young  animals  in  the  flock  are 
soon  of  his  get  —  and  consequently,  leaving  out  of  view  all 
previous  consanguinity,  are  as  nearly  related  as  half  brothers 
and  sisters.  These  must  be  bred  with  each  other,  or  the  best 
of  one  sex  sold,  or  the  highest  grade  of  perfection,  on  one 
side,  prevented  from  being  joined  with  the  highest  grade  of 
perfection  on  the  other.  The  latter  alternatives  are  most 
discouraging  hindrances  in  the  progress  of  breeding  improve- 
ment ;  and  how  can  we  assume  that  they  are  necessary,  in 
the  face  of  such  facts  as  those  above  given  ?  I  could  add 
hundreds  of  examples,  both  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  to  prove  that  in-and-in  breeding  does  not,  per  se, 
produce  degeneracy. 

But  while  I  am  satisfied  that  even  close  in-and-in  breeding 
is  one  of  the  most  powerful  levers  of  improvement  in  the 
hands  of  such  men  as  Bakewell,  Ellman,  and  Hammond  — 
breeders  who  thoroughly  understand  the  physiology  of  their 
art  —  I  shall  not  claim  that  it  is  so,  or  even  that  it  is  safe, 
in  the  hands  of  those  who  do  not  fully  and  clearly  know 
what  is  perfect  and  imperfect  in  structure ;  who  cannot  detect 
every  visible  indication  of  hereditary  disease ;  and  who  are 
not  familiar  by  long  experience  with  the  effects  of  combining 
different  forms,  qualities  and  conditions  by  inter-breeding. 

*  See  APPENDIX  A. 


BBEEDING  IN-AND-IN.  123 

"With  such  notable  instances  of  successful  in-and-in  breeders 
as  I  have  given,  and  with  the  hundreds  that  might  be  added 
to  the  list,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  instances  of  those  who 
have  failed  have  been  vastly  more  numerous.  When  the 
masterly  hand  of  Bakewell  no  longer  guided  his  improved 
Leicesters,  but  a  very  small  number  among  all  the  prominent 
breeders  of  them  were  ftmnd  able  to  preserve  them  without 
some  admixture  of  fresh  blood.  When  not  ruined  entirely, 
they  became  delicate  and  inclined  to  sterility.  And  so  the 
pinnacle  of  success  is  often  but  one  step  from  the  final  over- 
throw. In  view  of  all  the  facts,  therefore,  the  great  majority 
of  sheep  farmers,  who  do  not  make  breeding  a  study  and  an 
art,  had  better  continue  to  avoid  anything  like  close  in-and-in 
breeding  —  though  there  is  no  occasion  for  those  exaggerated 
fears  which  many  entertain  on  the  subject,  in  respect  to 
remote  relatives,  where  the  animals  to  be  coupled  are 
obviously  robust  and  well  formed. 

Some  persons  believe  that  the  dangers  of  in-and-in  breed- 
ing are  less  between  animals  of  pure  blood  than  between 
mongrels  or  grade  animals.*  I  can  see  no  reason  for  this, 
if  the  latter  are  equally  perfect  in  that  structural  organization 
on  which  health  depends. 

*  See  Goodale  on  the  Principles  of  Breeding. 


CHAPTER 
OBOSS-BBEEDING. 

CEOSS  -  BREEDING      THE       MEEINO       AND       COARSE      BREEDS 

CROSSING     DIFFERENT     FAMILIES     OF     MERINOS CROSSING 

BETWEEN    ENGLISH    BREEDS    AND    FAMILIES RECAPITULA- 
TION. 

CROSS-BREEDING,  as  I  shall  use  the  term,  signifies 
breeding  between  animals  of  different  breeds,  varieties,  or 
families;  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  breeding  between 
animals  of  the  same  family,  though  they  belong  to  different 
and  unrelated  flocks. 

CEOSS- BREEDING  BETWEEN  THE  MERINO  AND  COARSE 
BREEDS. — The  range  of  cross-breeding  between  fine  and 
coarse-wooled  sheep  is  comparatively  limited,  because  there 
is  but  one  breed  of  the  former  of  any  recognized  importance, 
viz.,  the  Merino.  And  no  intelligent  man,  at  the  present  day, 
would  any  more  think  of 'crossing  the  Merino  with  another 
breed  to  improve  the  characteristics  sought  in  the  Merino, 
than  he  would  of  alloying  gold  with  copper  to  improve  the 
qualities  of  the  gold. 

When  the  object  of  such  crossing  has  been  to  improve 
coarse  inferior  races,  it  has  succeeded  for  certain  purposes. 
The  coarse  common  sheep  of  our  country,  for  example,  are 
always  rendered  more  valuable  by  an  infusion  of  Merino 
blood.  They  gain  materially  in  fleece,  and  lose  in  no  other 
particular.  But  all  crosses  between  the  Merino  and  the 
large,  early-maturing  improved  English  breeds  and  families, 
such  as  the  Leicesters,  Cotswolds,  and  the  different  families 
of  Downs,  have  uniformly  resulted  in  failure,  and  must 
always  do  so,  as  long  as  the  characteristics  of  the  respective 
breeds  remain  the  same.  The  largest  and  heaviest  fleeced 
Merinos  would  probably  increase  the  weight  of  fleece  of  even 
the  heaviest  fleeced  English  long-wools,  but  the  wool  loses  by 


CBOSS  -  BREEDING.  1 25 

the  cross  its  present  specific  adaptation  to  a  demand  always 

§reat  in  England  and  now  rapidly  increasing  in  the  United 
tates.  *  TKe  mutton  is  not  injured,  nay,  for  American  tastes, 
it  is  decidedly  improved  by  the  cross ;  but  the  long- wool  sheep 
loses  its  size,  its  early  maturity,  its  propensity  to  fatten,  and 
its  great  prolificacy  in  breeding.  It  loses  the  faultless  form 
of  the  English  sheep,  without  even  acquiring  the  knotty 
compactness  of  the  Merino.  In  short,  in  the  expressive 
common  phrase,  it  becomes  "neither  one  thing  nor  the  other," 
but  only  a  comparatively  valueless  mongrel  between  two  —  for 
their  own  separate  objects  —  unimprovable  breeds  !f 

The  cross  between  the  Merino  and  the  Down  materially 
increases  and  improves  the  fleece  of  the  latter.  But  it  is  held 
to  detract  from  the  value  of  the  mutton,  and  it  seriously 
impairs  the  value  of  the  Down  in  all  the  same  particulars  in 
which  it  impairs  the  value  of  long-wools. 

All  attempts  to  establish  permanent  intermediate  varieties 
of  value  by  crosses  between  the  Merino  and  any  family  of 
mutton  sheep,  with  a  view  of  combining  the  especial  excel- 
lencies of  each,  have  ended  in  utter  failure.  Those  with  the 
Down  and  the  Ryeland  seemed  to  promise  best,  J  yet  they 
not  only  resulted  in  disappointment,  but  produced  mongrels 
incapable  of  being  bred  back  to  either  of  the  English  types. 

The  Merino,  owing,  doubtless  to  its  greater  purity  of 
blood  compared  with  most  other  breeds,  and  to  its  vastly 
greater  antiquity  of  blood  compared  with  any  of  them,  § 
possesses  a  force  and  tenacity  of  hereditary  transmission 
which  renders  it  a  most  unmanageable  material  in  any  cross 
aiming  at  middle  results.  Its  distinctive  peculiarities  are 

*  The  combination  of  a  wool  so  pre-eminent  for  certain  necessary  objects  with 
snch  valuable  mutton  properties,  render  these  sheep  one  of  those  great  gifts  to  man- 
kind which  it  would  seem  almost  wicked  to  tamper  with  ! 

1 1  made  some  experiments  in  this  cross  —  quite  enough  to  satisfy  me — in  the 
earlier  part  of  my  life. 

$  I  bred  a  few  hundred  South  Down  and  Merino  cross-breeds,  many  years  ago,  and 
they  made  a  very  pretty  sheep.  They  were  not  much  larger  than  the  largest  sized 
Infantados  of  the  present  day — because,  filled  with  Mr.  Cline's  ideas,  I  selected  a  very 
small  and  excessively  high-bred  ram  for  the  cross.  He  was  bred  by  Francis  Rotch, 
Esq.,  and  got  by  a  prize  ram  of  Mr.  Ellman's  out  of  an  Ellman  ewe. 

§  The  fine-wooled  sheep  of  Spain  are  clearly  traceable  to  a  period  anterior  to  the 
Christian  Era,  on  the  authority  of  Strabo,  Pliny  and  other  Roman  writers  of  conceded 
veracity.  Pliny  was  himself  the  Roman  Procurator  in  Spain  in  the  opening  part  of  the 
first  century,  and  could  speak  from  the  result  of  his  own  observations.  The  often 
re-published  statement  — that  the  breed  was  formed  and  subsequently  perfected  by 
crossing  these  fine-wooled  sheep  with  coarse,  hairy,  long-wooled  Barbary  rams,  intro- 
duced for  that  purpose  by  Columella,  Pedro  IV,  of  Castile,  and  Cardinal  Ximenes— rests 
on  no  sound  historical  proof,  and  is  not  credited  by  any  recent  intelligent  writer  on 
sheep.  It  never  was  credited  by  men  who  were  practically  acquainted  with  the  breed- 
ing of  Merino  sheep.  If  these  Barbary  crosses  are  not  altogether  mythical,  they 
undoubtedly  were  made  with,  or  first  formed,  the  C'hunahs,  a  lonjt,  coarse-wool**! 
breed  of  sheep  which  have  existed  for  ages  in  Spain 


126  CEOSS- BREEDING. 

made  to  give  way  with  difficulty,  and  its  tendency  to  breed 
back  is  almost  unconquerable.  But  if  the  Merino  fuses  with 
reluctance,  it  absorbs  other  breeds  with  rapidity.  A  cross 
between  it  and  a  coarse  breed  is  always  legitimate  and 
successful,  where  the  object  is  to  merge  that  coarse  breed 
entirely  in  the  Merino.  This  is  accomplished  by  putting  the 
ewes  of  such  breed,  and  every  new  generation  of  their  cross- 
bred descendants,  steadily  to  pure  blood  Merino  rams. 

Many  grade  flocks  were  commenced  in  this  way,  a  few 
years  since,  in  the  Southern  States,  and  particularly  in 
Texas, —  not  a  few  of  thefc  under  my  advice,  and  to  some 
extent  under  my  direction.  The  pasture  lands  in  those 
regions  were  limitless  and  their  market  value  only  nominal. 
They  were  generally  yielding  no  returns  to  their  owners.  If 
they  could  be  stocked  speedL'y  with  any  kind  of  sheep,  the 
gain  would  be  immense.  But  wool  would  be  the  main  object, 
as  there  was  little  or  no  market  for  mutton.  To  stock  such 
large  tracts  with  pure  blood  Merinos  was  out  of  the  question, 
both  on  the  score  of  expense,  and  because  they  could  not  be 
obtained  rapidly  enough  at  any  cost.  I  therefore  counseled 
the  purchase  of  the  common  ewes  of  the  country  where  there 
were  any,  and  where  there  were  none,  those  most  readily  to 
be  obtained, —  even  though,  as  it  often  happened  in  Western 
Texas,  none  could  be  obtained  better  than  the  small,  coarse, 
thin  -  wooled,  miserable  Mexican  ewes.  These  and  their 
progeny  being  bred  steadily  to  Merino  rams,  the  result  was 
in  every  instance  a  decided  success.  The  first  generation  of 
cross-breeds,  even  from  Mexican  sheep,  were  signally  improved 
in  weight  and  quality  of  wool,  and  when  from  a  mediocre 
Merino  ram,  would  sell  for  more  than  twice  the  price  of  their 
dams ;  and  each  ascending  grade  toward  the  Merino  continued 
to  increase  steadily  in  value.* 

*  George  W.  Kendall,  Esq.,  by  far  the  largest  and  most  experienced  wool  grower 
in  Texas,  who  started  a  portion  of  his  flock  with  Mexican  ewes,  in  a  letter  published 
in  the  Texas  Almanac,  1858,  says : 

"  The  produce  of  the  old  Mexican  ewes  gave  evident  signs  of  great  improvement, 
not  only  in  form  and  apparent  vigor  of  constitution,  but  particularly  in  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  wool.  Here  I  might  state  that  a  Mexican  ewe,  shearing  one  pound  of 
coarse  wool,  if  bred  to  a  Merino  buck  of  pure  and  approved  good  blood,  will  produce 
a  lamb,  which,  when  one  year  old,  will  shear  at  least  three  pounds  of  much  finer  wool; 
and  the  produce  of  this  lamb,  again,  if  a  ewe,  will  go  up  to  four  and  a  half  or  five 
pounds  of  still  finer  wool.  I  can  now  show  wethers  in  my  flock  of  the  third  remove 
from  the  original  coarse  Mexican  stock  which  la-t  May  sheared  seven  pounds  of  wool- 
unwashed,  it  is  true,  but  of  exceeding  fine  quality,  and  worth  30  cents  per  pound  at  this 
time  in  New  1  ork,  or  $2.10  for  the  fleece.  This  is  a  rapid  improvement.  Had  the  old  ewe 
and  her  produce  been  bred  constantly  to  Mexican  bucks,  the  wether  would  have  sheared 
?™  ^  cent,  worth  of  coarse  wool— not  more  than  40  cents  worth  at  the  outside." 
(Ihese  facts  further  show  the  nonsense  of  the  half-and-half  theory  of  propa^a- 


CROSSING   FAMILIES    OF   MERINOS.  127 

In  such  crosses  the  high  qualities  of  choice  rams  render 
themselves  eminently  conspicuous — even  more  so,  relatively, 
than  in  breeding  among  full-bloods.  The  descendants  of 
such  rams  in  the  second  cross  (%  blood)  are  frequently  more 
valuable  than  those  of  mediocre  rams  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
cross  (j-f  or  f£  blood.) 

In  the  matter  of  profit — for  the  mere  purposes  of  wool 
growing  for  our  American  market  —  these  grades  approach 
the  full-blood  rapidly.  But  there  never  was  a  more  prepos- 
terous delusion  than  that  entertained  by  the  early  French 
breeders,  that  "  a  Merino  in  the  fourth  generation  [||  blood] 
from  even  the  worst  wooled  ewes,  was  in  every  respect  equal 
to  the  stock  of  the  sire."  Chancellor  Livingston,  who  asserts 
this  to  have  been  the  opinion  of  the  French  breeders,  further 
says: — "No  difference  is  now  [1809]  made  in  Europe  in 
the  choice  of  a  ram,  whether  he  is  a  full-blood  or  fifteen- 
sixteenths."*  This  undoubtedly  solves  problems  in  relation 
to  a  portion  of  the  French  Merinos,  which  otherwise  would 
be  quite  inexplicable.  They  are,  undoubtedly,  grade  sheep. 
The  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  refuse  to  the  highest  bred 
grade  sheep  any  other  designation  than  "  improved  half- 
bloods."  They  found,  says  Mr.  Fleichniann,  that  their 
original  coarse  sheep  had  5,500  fibers  of  wool  on  a  square 
inch  of  skin ;  that  grades  of  the  third  or  fourth  Merino  cross 
have  about  8,000  ;  the  twentieth  cross  27,000 ;  the  perfect 
pure  blood  from  40,000  to  48,000.f  I  do  not  apprehend  that 
there  is  any  thing  like  an  equal  difference  between  the  number 
of  fibers  on  a  given  surface  of  the  American  Merino  and  its 
grades  ;  but  in  thirty  years  observation  of  such  grades  of  every 
rank  —  some  of  them  higher  than  the  tenth  cross,  where  there 
is  but  one  part  of  the  blood  of  the  coarse  sheep  to  1,023  parts 
of  Merino  blood  J — I  never  have  yet  seen  one  which,  in  every 
particular,  equaled  a  full  blood  of  the  highest  class. 

CROSSING  DIFFERENT  FAMILIES  OF  MERINOS.  — This  has 
resulted  more  or  less  favorably  under  different  circumstances. 
The  Spaniards  did  not  practice  it.  The  French  were  the  first 
who  undertook  it  on  a  comprehensive  scale.  They  selected, 
as  we  have  seen,  from  all  the  Spanish  families  indiscriminately 

*  Livingston's  Essay  on  Sheep,  p.  131. 

t  See  Mr.  Fleichmann's  article  on  German  sheep  in  the  Patent  Office  Report,  1847. 

$  Probably  most  persons  are  familiar  with  reckoning  the  degrees  of  blood  in 
ascending  crosses  — but  for  those  who  are  not,  I  will  say  that  the  first  cross  has  1-2 
improved  blood  ;  2d,  3-4 ;  3d,  7-8 ;  4th,  15-16 ;  5th,  31-32 ;  6th,  03-64 ;  7th,  127-128 ;  8th, 
255-256J;  9th,  511-512 ;  10th,  1023-1024,  and  so  on. 


128  CROSSING  FAMILIES    OF   MERINOS. 

where  they  could  find  animals  which  presented  desirable 
qualities,  and  mixed  these  families  indiscriminately  together. 
To  this  cause,  in  a  very  considerable  measure,  is  to  be 
attributed  the  remarkably  unhomogeneous  character  of  the 
French  flocks.  Breeding  back,  in  the  hands  of  persons 
entertaining  different  views,  has  separated  them  into  almost 
as  many  families  as  they  started  from ;  and  the  new  families 
lack  within  themselves  the  uniformity  and  permanent  hered- 
itary character  of  the  original  ones.  Mr.  Jarvis,  in  the 
United  States,  crossed  several  families  —  all  prime  Leonese, 
and  not  widely  variant  in  character.  The  cross  was  guided 
by  a  single  intelligent  will,  and  always  toward  a  definite 
and  consistent  end.  Therefore  a  much  greater  degree  of 
uniformity  was  obtained. 

The  present  highly  popular  Paular  family  in  Vermont  is, 
as  has  been  already  seen,  dashed  with  Infantado  and  mixed 
Leonese  (Jarvis)  strains  of  blood.*  Crosses  between  the 
present  Paulars  and  Infantados  are  now  common  throughout 
Vermont,  and  the  produce  is  held  in  high  estimation.  The 
Paular  ewe  in  such  cases  is  usually  bred  to  the  Infantado 
ram.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  widest  of  these 
crosses  do  not  go  beyond  six  original  cabanas  of  prime 
Leonese  sheep, — among  the  best  and  most  uniform  of  Spain. 

The    cross    began    in   Germany  by  Ferdinand    Fischer, 

*  I  gave  an  account  of  the  origin  of  this  cross  in  my  Report  on  Fine- Wool 
Husbandry,  1862,  from  the  information  of  those  who  ought  to  have  known  the  facts; 
bnt  on  fuller  investigation  it  proves  to  have  been  erroneous  in  some  particulars.  The 
Rich  (Paular)  and  Jarvis  (mixed  Leonese)  sheep  had  been  crossed  somewhat  anterior 
to  1844.  Judge  M.  W.  C.  Wright,  of  Shoreham,  Vermont,  having  conceived  the  idea  of 
crossing  the  produce  with  the  Infantado  or  Atwood  family,  purchased  a  ram  for  that 
purpose  of  Mr.  Atwood  at  the  New  York  State  Fair  in  the  fall  of  the  last  named  year. 
Judge  Wright  sold  the  ram,  immediately  after  his  return  to  Vermont,  to  Prosper 
Elithorp,  of  Bridport,  and  Loyal  C.  Remelee,  of  Shoreham,  but  used  him  himself 
more  or  less  for  three  years.  This,  the  "Atwood  ram,"  got  the  "  Elithorp  ram"  out 
of  a  ewe  bred  by  Mr.  Remelee,  and  sold  by  him  to  Mr.  Elithorp.  The  dam  of  the 
Elithorp  ram  was  got  by  Judge  Wright's  "Black  Hawk"  out  of  a  pure  Jarvis  ewe, 
purchased  by  Mr.  Remelee  of  Mr,  Jarvis.  Black  Hawk  was  got  by  "  Fortune,"  out  of 
a  pure  Jarvis  ewe  purchased  by  Judge  Wright  of  Mr.  Jarvis.  Fortune  was  bred  by 
Tyler  Stickney,  and  got  by  "  Consul "  out  of  a  pure  Paular  (Rich)  ewe.  Consul  was 
a  pure  Jarvis  ram,  purchased  by  Mr.  Stickney  of  Mr.  Jarvis.  Mr.  Elithorp  sold  the 
Elithorp  ram,  then  a  lamb,  in  the  fall  of  1845.  to  Erastus  Robinson,  of  Shoreham. 
The  Elithorp  ram  got  the  "  Old  Robinson  ram  "  out  of  a  ewe  bred  by  Mr.  Elithorp, 
and  sold  by  him,  with  twenty-nine  others,  to  Mr.  Robinson  in  1843.  The  dam  of  the 
Old  Robinson  ram  was  got  by  the  Atwood  ram,  above  mentioned,  out  of  a  pure 
Paular  (Rich)  ewe  bred  by  Mr.  Robinson,  and  sold  by  him  to  Mr.  Elithorp  in  1843. 
The  Atwood,  Elithorp  and  Old  Robinson  rams,  and  particularly  the  last  named,  were 
the  founders  of  the  crossed  family.  The  Old  Robinson  ram  in  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Robinson  and  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Stickney,  (who  subsequently  purchased  him  of 
the  former,)  begot  an  immense  number  of  lambs,  which  were  very  strongly  marked 
with  his  own  characteristics,  and  which,  in  turn,  generally  transmitted  "them  with 
great  force  to  their  posterity.  They  were  generally  smallish,  short,  exceedingly 
round  and  compact,  with  fine,  yolky,  and  for  those  times  and  for  the  size  of  the  sheep. 
heavy  fleeces.  Messrs.  Robinson  and  Stickney  spread  rams  of  this  family  far  and 
Wide.  See  APPENDIX  B. 


CROSSING  AMERICAN  AND   FRENCH   MERINOS.  129 

between  the  Negretti  and  Infantado  families,  and  continued 
in  the  United  States  by  Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  its  results  have 
already  been  described. 

The  cross  between  the  French  and  American  Merino  has 
been  well  spoken  of  in  some  quarters,  but  it  has  not  yet,  so 
far  as  my  individual  observation  has  extended,  justified  those 
expectations  which,  it  would  seem,  might  reasonably  be  based 
on  the  character  of  the  materials.  The  best  French  ewe,  or  the 
French  and  American  Merino  ewe  (with  a  sufficient  infusion 
of  French  blood  to  have  large  size,)  has  few  superiors  as  a  pure 
Avool-producing  animal.  But  the  wool  lacks  yolk  to  give  it 
weight.  The  full-blood  French  sheep  also  lacks  in  hardi- 
ness*. Both  it  and  its  cross-breeds  are  excellent  nurses.  The 
American  Merino  ram  has  a  super-abundance  of  the  desired 
yolkiness  of  fleece  and  of  hardiness.  As  the  smaller  animal, 
his  progeny  have  especial  advantages  for  an  excellent  develop- 
ment before  parturition,  and  they  receive  abundant  nutrition 
afterwards.  Here  then,  seemingly,  are  all  the  requisite 
conditions  for  an  excellent  cross ;  and  I  cannot  but  believe 
that  such  a  cross  will  be  made  with  decided  success,  as  soon 
as  precisely  the  fitting  individual  materials  are  brought 
together  and  managed  with  the  requisite  skill.f 

The  cross  between  the  American  and  Saxon  Merino  results 
proverbially  well  —  better  in  almost  every  instance  than 
it  would  be  considered  reasonable  to  anticipate.  I  gave  a 

*  It  lacks  very  materially  in  hardiness  if  from  a  pampered  flock,  or  immediately 
descended  from  pampered  ancestors.  The  early  crosses  between  French  and  American 
Merino  sheep  require  extra  attention  when  young,  but  when  fully  grown  are,  on  fair 
keep,  a  healthy  and  hardy  animal. 

t  I  tried  this  cross  a  few  years  since,  and  the  following  statement  of  the  results 
appeared  in  my  Report  on  Fine  Wool  Husbandry,  1862: — "My  own  experiments  in 
this  cross,  candor  requires  me  to  say,  have  been  less  successful.  Some  of  them  were 
made  with  a  ram  bred  by  Col.  F.  M.  Rotch  and  pure-blood  American  Merino  ewes; 
some  were  purchased  of  gentlemen  who  started  with  such  ewe's  and  bred  them  to  first- 
rate  French  ranis  obtained  of  Messrs.  Taintor  and  Patterson;  and  some  were  got  by 
pure  American  rams  on  high  grade  French  and  American  ewes  (averaging  say  fifteen- 
sixteenths  or  more  French,  and  the  remainder  American  Merino  blood.)  From  this 
last  cross  I  expected  much.  The  ewes  were  compact  and  noble  looking  animals.  The 
produce  was  obviously  better  than  the  get  of  French  rams  on  the  same  ewes,  but  after 
watching  it  for  two  years,  I  have  recently  come  rather  reluctantly  to  the  conclusion 
that,  in  this  climate,  even  these  grades  are  not  intrinsically  as  valuable  as  pure 
American  Merinos.  But  the  Merino  ram  which  got  them,  though  apparently  present- 
ing the  most  admirable  combination  of  points  for  such  a  cross,  has  not  proved  himself 
a  superior  sire  with  other  ewes ;  and  I  do  not  therefore  regard  this  experiment  as 
conclusive.  (This  ram  weighed  about  140  Ibs.,  was  compact  and  symmetrical,  and  his 
fleece  weighed  14  Ibs.  washed.  He  was  a  very  dark,  yolky  sheep.  He  was  bred  in 
Vermont;  and  though  undoubtedly  full  blood,  probably  did  not  spring  from  ancestors 
as  good  as  himself,  or  in  other  words,  he  was  an  "  accidental "  animal.)  Some  well- 
managed  experiments  of  both  these  kinds  have  been  tried  by  the  Messrs.  Baker,  of 
Lafayette,  and  the  Messrs.  Clapp,  of  Pompey,  N.  Y.  They  bred  toward  the  French 
until  they  obtained  about  fifteen-sixteenths  of  that  blood,  and  now  find  the  cross  best 
the  other  way.  One  of  the  last  of  these  crosses  now  appears  to  promise  extremely 
well." 

6* 


130  CROSSING    AMERICAN    AND    SAXON    MERINOS. 

striking  instance,  in  my  Report  on  Fine- Wool  Husbandry, 
1862,  of  the  good  results  of  a  Paular  and  Saxon  cross.  I  will 
now  give  one  of  an  Infantado  and  Saxon  cross.  Capt.  Davis 
Cossit  (TJ.  S.  V.)  of  Onondaga,  New  York,  had  in  1859  a 
flock  of  Saxon  ewes  with  sufficient  American  Merino  blood  to 
yield,  on  ordinary  keep,  about  four  pounds  of  washed  wool 
per  head.  In  that  and  the  two  succeeding  years  he  put 
his  ewes  to  the  Infantado  ram  "21  per  cent.,"  (named  in 
connection  with  Petri's  table  of  the  dimensions,  etc.,  of  Spanish 
sheep  in  Chapter  1st  of  this  volume.)  In  1862  the  fleeces  of 
the  young  sheep  produced  by  this  cross  Avere  first  weighed 
separately.  Eighty-three  two-year  old  ewes  yielded  552  Ibs., 
and  eighty  yearling  ewes  504  Ibs.  of  washed  wool  —  within  a 
fraction  of  6£  Ibs.  per  head,  and  an  advance  of  about  2£  Ibs. 
per  head  over  the  fleeces  of  their  dams.  Each  lot  was  the 
entire  one  (of  ewes)  of  its  year :  not  one  having  been  excluded 
on  account  of  inferiority.  I  saw  them  several  times  before 
shearing,  and  them  and  their  wool  immediately  after  shearing. 
The  wool  was  in  good  condition ;  and  the  sheep  obviously  had 
not  been  pampered.  They  were  very  uniform  in  size  and 
shape,  and  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  their  sire.  Not  one 
of  the  whole  number  had  short  or  thin  wool. 

In  1863,  sixty-five  two-year  olds  (the  portion  remaining  on 
hand  of  the  eighty  yearlings  of  the  preceding  year)  and 
ninety-two  yearlings  (the  third  crop  of  lambs  got  by  "21  per 
cent.")  yielded  1,1 19£  Ibs.  of  washed  wool,  ov  an  average  of 
7  Ibs.  2  oz.  per  head.  All  these  sheep  had  been  heavily  tagged 
and  the  tags,  which  would  not  have  averaged  less  than  2  oz. 
of  washed  wool  per  head,  were  not  weighed  with  the 


Notwithstanding  these  brilliant  and  rather  frequent 
successes  in  crossing  different  Merino  families,  (especially 
where  the  object  is  to  merge  an  inferior  in  a  superior  family,) 
the  failures,  or  comparative  failures,  have  been  far  more 
numerous.  To  cross  different  families  of  any  breed  merely 
for  the  sake  of  crossing,  under  the  impression  that  it  is  in 
itself  beneficial  to  health,  or  in  any  other  particular  —  or  with 


*  I  do  not  give  the  weight  of  the  three-year  olds'  fleeces  in  1863,  because  they 
•were  put  in  -with  the  fleeces  of  other  breeding  ewes,  and  not  weighed  separately. 
About  fifteen  of  the  yearling  ewes  were  out  of  some  young  ewes  of  a  previous  cross, 
then  just  come  into  breeding,  which  yielded  about  5  Ibs.  of  wool  per  head.  The  two- 
year  olds  were  sheared  on  the  34th  of  May  in  1862,  and  on  the  8th  and  9th  of  June  in 
1863,  so  that  their  fleeces  were  of  12>£  months'  growth.  The  yearlings  were  dropped 
between  the  6th  of  April  and  1st  of  June.  1862,  and  sheared  at  the  same  time  with  tho 
preceding  in  18<>3,  so  that  their  fleeces  did  not  average  over  fourteen  months'  growth- 
the  usual  one  at  the  first  shearing.  Neither  lot  was  pampered. 


CROSSING   WITHOUT   AJST    OBJECT.  131 

a  vague  hope  that  some  improvement  of  a  character  which 
cannot  be  anticipated  may  result  from  it,  is  the  height  of  folly 
and  weakness.  Even  uniform  mediocrity  is  far  preferable  to 
mediocrity  without  uniformity;  and  he  who  has  the  former 
should  not  break  it  up  by  crossing,  without  having  a  definite 
purpose,  a  definite  plan  for  attaining  that  purpose,  and  enough 
knowledge  and  experience  on  the  subject  to  afford  a  decent 
prospect  of  success.  It  is  always  safer  and  better  in  seeking 
any  improvement,  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  same  breed  and 
family,  if  that  family  contains  within  itself  all  the  requisite 
elements  of  the  desired  improvement,  or  as  good  ones  as  can 
be  found  elsewhere.  The  most  splendid  successes,  among  all 
classes  of  domestic  animals  have  been  won  in  this  way.* 
Successful  crossing  generally  requires  as  much  skill  as  success- 
ful in-and-in  breeding.  And  as  it  is  vastly  more  common,  so 
vastly  more  flocks  in  this  country  have  been  impaired  in 
value  by  it,  or  at  least  hindered  from  making  any  important 
and  permanent  improvement.  They  are  not  permitted  to 
become  established  in  any  improvement,  before  it  is  upset  by 
a  new  cross ;  and  these  rapid  crosses  finally  so  destroy  the 
family  character  of  the  flock  —  infuse  into  it  so  many  family 
and  individual  strains  of  blood  to  be  bred  back  to  —  that  it 
sometimes  becomes  a  mere  medley  which  has  lost  the  benefit 
that  blood  confers  —  viz.,  family  likeness  and  the  power  to 
transmit  family  likeness  to  posterity. 

Every  breeder  or  flockmaster  should,  after  due  observation 
and  reflection,  fix  upon  a  standard  for  his  flock  —  a  standard 

*  The  English  race-horse  and  the  Short-Horned  family  of  cattle  are  both  frequently 
cited  as  instances  of  choice  breeds  originating  from  a  mixed  origin.  In  regard  to  the 
origin  of  the  race-horse,  the  weight  of  proof  and  intelligent  opinion  is  the  other  way. 
In  regard  to  that  of  the  Short-Horn,  the  matter  is  involved  in  much  doubt.  (Those 
who  wish  to  see  the  facts  on  both  sides  of  the  question  stated,  will  find  them  in 
Stevens'  edition  of  Youatt  and  Martin  on  Cattle  1851.)  But  conceding,  for  the  sake 
of  the  argument,  that  both  breeds  were  originally  the  result  of  crosses,  can  any  one 
show  that  they  owed  such  merit  as  they  first  possessed  to  the  cross  ?  And  have  either 
of  them  been  improved  up  to  their  present  matchless  character,  by  the  aid  of  any  new 
crosses?  Mr.  Youatt  says:— "In  the  descent  of  almost  every  modern  racer,  not  the 
slightest  flaw  can  be  discovered ;  or  when,  with  the  splendid  exception  of  Sampson 
and  Bay  Malton,  one  drop  of  common  blood  has  mingled  with  the  pure  stream,  it  has 
been  immediately  detected  in  the  inferiority  of  form,  and  deficiency  of  bottom,  and  it 
has  required  two  or  three  generations  to  wipe  away  the  stain  and  get  rid  of  its  conse- 
quences." The  Short-Horns  have  been  bred  pure,  with  an  equally  jealous  exclusive- 
ness  ;  and  no  breeder  of  them  would  admit  a  cross  in  his  pedigrees  sooner  than  he 
would  a  bar-sinister  on  his  family  escutcheon,  except  in  the  single  case  of  the 
dependents  of  a  polled  Galloway  cow,  to  which  Charles  Colling  resorted  for  a  cross 
with  sonic  of  his  Short-Horns.  He  took  but  a  single  cross  and  bred  back  ever  after  to 
the  Short-Horns,  so  that  there  is  not  probably  a  thousandth,  or  perhaps  five  thousandth 
part  of  the  blood  of  that  Galloway  cow  in  any  of  the  Alloy  (as  the  descendants  of 
the  cross  are  called,)  now  living.  Yet  the  English  breeders  think  one  of  the  Alloy 
can  now  be  distinguished  from  a  pure  Short-Horn,  by  its  appearance !  This  cross 
once  enjoyed  —  perhaps  was  written  into  —  great  popularity;  but  its  reputation  has 
waned;  and  there  are  many  leading  breeders  in  England  who  would  not  on  any 
consideration  have  a  valuable  cow  bulled  by  the  best  sire  of  the  family. 


132  CROSSING    ENGLISH    BREEDS. 

of  form,  of  size,  of  length  of  wool,  of  quality  of  wool,  etc.,  etc.; 
and  on  this  he  should  keep  his  eyes  as  steadily  as  the  mariner 
keeps  his  eyes  on  the  light  house,  in  the  darkness,  when  on  a 
dangerous  coast.  Even  in  using  a  fresh  ram  from  an  unrelated 
flock  of  the  same  family,  (which  is  not  crossing,)  he  should 
use  one  which  conforms  as  nearly  as  possible  to  his  standard. 
If  he  disregards  this;  if  he  uses  rams  now  tall  and  long 
bodied,  and  now  low  and  short ;  now  short  and  yolky  wooled, 
and  now  long  and  dry  wooled  ;  now  fine,  and  now  coarse  — 
in  a  word,  each  varying  from  its  predecessor  in  some  essential 
quality  —  he  will  not,  perhaps,  break  up  his  flock  quite  as 
much  as  he  would  by  crossing  equally  at  random,  but  he  will 
do  the  next  thing  to  it;  he  will  give  it  an  unsettled  and 
unhomogenous  character  and  materially  retard,  if  not  alto- 
gether prevent  essential  improvement. 

CROSSING  BETWEEN  ENGLISH  BREEDS  AND  FAMILIES. — 
If  we  assume,  with  Mr.  Youatt,  that  the  long  and  short-wooled 
sheep  of  England  are  each  respectively  descended  from 
common  ancestors,  they  form  but  two  breeds  of  sheep, 
according  to  the  mode  of  classification  adopted  in  this  volume. 
There  have  been  but  a  very  few  successful  crosses  between 
these  two  breeds.  The  Hampshire  and  Shropshire  Downs, 
however,  both  ranked  as  first  class  sheep,  and  both  officially 
classed  as  short-wools,  have  usually  a  dip  of  long-wool  blood. 
The  Oxfordshire  Downs  are  the  result  of  a  direct  cross 
between  the  Down  and  the  Cotswold,  and  they  are  already 
claimed  to  be  an  "established  variety."*  But  the  instances 
of  failure  in  blending  the  breeds  have  been  so  much  more 
numerous  than  the  successes,  that  the  balance  of  intelligent 
opinion  seems  to  be  decidedly  against  such  attempts.  With 
them,  as  with  the  Merino,  the  successes  in  crossing  between 
the  different  families  of  the  same  breed,  have  been  numerous  and 
signal.  Mr.  Bakewell,  there  is  little  doubt,  was  the  first  great 
improver  in  this  direction,  though  we  are  scarcely  authorized 
to  cite  his  example,  because,  with  a  spirit  much  better  befitting 

*  In  this  and  all  similar  instances,  we  should  not  forget  that  a  breed  regarded  as 
"  established "  in  England,  might  not  prove  so,  literally,  elsewhere.  The  English 
breeders,  as  a  class,  are  men  of  education,  and  of  ample  wealth  and  leisure  to  choose 
materials  for  their  experiments,  devote  time  to  those  experiments,  and  sacrifice  by 
weeding  out,  without  regard  to  time  or  money.  And  by  devoting  themselves  to  the 
pursuit,  and  constantly  comparing  their  opinions  with  other  opinions,  and  their  stock 
with  other  stock,  among  a  whole  nation  of  breeders  striving  to  excel  each  other,  they 
acquire  a  degree  of  knowledge,  taste  and  skill  on  the  subject  which  is  professional, 
and  which  far  exceeds  that  (within  their  own  particular  circle  of  breeding,)  of  any 
other  people.  And  in  no  place  lias  Engligh  breeding  skill  manifested  itself  more  than 
in  creating,  moulding  and  "establishing"  mutton  breeds  of  sheep. 


CROSSING    ENGLISH  FAMILIES.  133 

a  nostrum  vender  than  a  reputable  breeder,  he  veiled  all 
his  proceedings  in  the  closest  mystery,  and  even  permitted 
the  knowledge  of  them  to  die  with  him.  Some  therefore  have, 
affected  to  believe  that  he  resorted  to  different  breeds,  as  he 
is  known  to  have  done  to  different  families,  in  selecting  his 
materials.  But  there  are  no  proofs  of  the  fact,  and  all  the 
probabilities  favor  the  conclusion  that  he  adhered  strictly  to 
the  long-wooled  families.*  Among  the  facts  which  would 
seem,  by  analogy,  to  favor  the  latter  conclusion,  was  his  own 
rigid  in-and-in  line  of  breeding,  after  his  materials  were 
selected.  If  he  deemed  such  quasi-identity  both  in  blood  and 
structure  necessary  or  favorable  to  the  completion  of  his 
object,  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  he  would  have  volun- 
tarily, and  wholly  unnecessarily,  disregarded  so  great  a 
discrepancy  as  that  of  a  total  difference.in  breed,  in  its  outset ; 
or,  even  that  he  would  have  spread  his  selection  over  any 
unnecessary  number  of  families  within  the  same  breed. 

Mr.  Bakewell's  improved  Leicesters  have,  since  his  death, 
again  been  improved  by  a  dip  of  Cotswold  blood.  It  is  found 
to  invigorate  their  constitutions,  and  to  render  them  better  in 
the  hind  quarters.  The  Cotswolds  of  the  present  day  have 
generally  been  rendered  a  little  more  disposed  to  take  on  fat 
rapidly,  and  to  mature  earlier,  by  a  Leicester  cross.  The  New 
Oxfordshire  sheep,  as  has  been  seen,  is  but  a  Cotswold 
improved  by  Leicester  blood. 

The  Hampshire  and  Shropshire  Downs  may  be  cited  as 
conspicuous  examples  of  successful  crossing  between  the 
short-wooled  families  —  for  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  mainly  to 
these  families  they  owe  their  peculiar  excellence,  and  not  to 
any  strain  of  long-wool  blood,  where  it  exists  in  them. 
Various  of  the  minor  British  short-wooled  families  have  also 
been  improved  by  crosses  with  the  Down,  and  with  each  other. 

For  another  and  merely  temporary  purpose,  viz.,  to  obtain 
larger  and  earlier  lambs  or  sheep  for  the  butcher,  it  is 
legitimate  to  cross  between  different  breeds  or  families  indis- 
criminately, where  the  object  in  view  can  be  effected  in  the 
first  cross.  The  nature  of  the  Soil,  food  or  climate  may  be 
unfavorable  to  the  large,  early-maturing  mutton  families,  but 
sufficiently  favorable  to  some  smaller  and  hardier  sheep; 
indeed,  many  such  localities  in  all  old  countries  have  families, 
grown  on  them  for  many  generations,  which  have  gradually 

*  This  is  decidedly  Mr.  Youatt's  opinion,  though,  like  other  British  writers,  he 
uses  the  word  breed  to  classify  the  different  families  (as  they  are  termed  in  this 
volume)  of  the  loug-wooled  breed. 


134  CROSSING   ENGLISH   AND   LOCAL   BREEDS. 

become  so  adapted  to  their  surroundings,  that  conditions 
highly  unfavorable  to  other  sheep  have  become  innocuous,  if 
.not  actually  favorable  to  them.  Yet  these  local  families  may 
"be  ill  adapted  to  meet  the  requisitions  of  the  most  accessible 
mutton  markets,  or,  indeed,  of  any  mutton  market.  They 
may  be  too  small,  too  late  in  maturing,  too  indisposed  to  take 
on  flesh,  fat,  etc.  In  such  cases,  rams  of  an  improved  mutton 
family  —  the  family  being  selected  with  especial  reference  to 
the  demands  of  the  particular  market  and  the  defects  to  be 
counteracted  in  the  local  family  —  are  put  to  the  ewes  of  the 
local  family,  and  the  produce,  as  is  usual  with  half-bloods, 
partakes  strongly  of  the  physical  properties  of  the  sire  and  yet 
retains  enough  of  the  hardiness  and  local  adaptation  of  the 
dam  to  thrive  and  mature  where  the  full-blood  or  high  bred 
grade  of  the  superior  family  could  not  do  so.  But  in  all  such 
instances,  the  grower  should  stop  with  the  first  cross.  If, 
seduced  by  the  beauty  of  that  cross,  he  makes  a  second  one 
between  the  full-blood  ram  and  the  half-blood  females,  he  ob- 
tains animals  very  little  better  than  their  dams  for  the  purposes 
of  mutton  sheep,  and  decidedly  less  adapted  to  the  local  cir- 
cumstances. Accordingly,  some  portions  of  the  local  family 
should  always  also  be  bred  pure  by  themselves,  to  furnish 
females  for  the  cross.  This  last  course  is  generally  pursued 
among  the  breeders  of  England  who  make  such  crosses. 

It  is  wonderful  that,  with  the  highly  successful  example  of 
the  English  constantly  before  us,  in  the  mode  of  cross-breeding 
last  described,  it  has  not  been  more  extensively  resorted  to 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  heart  of  the  mutton-growing 
region  on  our  Atlantic  sea-board,  there  are  very  many  locali- 
ties which,  by  the  poverty  of  the  soil,  by  the  severity  of  the 
climate  and  the  want  of  proper  winter  conveniencies,  or  by 
these  causes  combined,  are  rendered  unfit  to  sustain  the  large 
English  mutton  breeds.  But  they  sustain  local  varieties,  or 
in  default  of  these,  Avould  sustain  the  coarse,  hardy  "  common 
sheep  "  of  the  country;  and  these  bred  to  Down  or  Leicester 
rains  would  produce  lambs  which,  with  a  little  better  keep, 
would  sell,  at  four  or  five  months  old,  for  as  much  as  the  cost 
of  their  dams,  so  that,  if  the  fleece  and  manure  would  pay  for 
keeping,  and  if  the  number  of  lambs  equaled  that  of  the  ewes 
(always  practicable  with  such  sheep  when  not  kept  in  large 
numbers,)  the  net  profit  of  100  per  centum  would  be  annually 
made  on  the  flock.* 


*  Mr.  Thome,  whose  superb  South  Downs  have  been  described,  finds  his  lands 
well  adapted  to  the  pure  South  Down,  but  his  sheep  of  that  family  are  too  valuable 


CKOSSING    ENGLISH   AND   COMMON   SHEEP.  135 

An  analagous  course  of  crossing  might  be  resorted  to 
with  great  profit  by  those  farmers  in  our  Western  States,  who 
prefer  to  make  mutton  production  the  leading  object  of  their 
sheep  husbandry,  and  who  now  grow  those  immense  flocks  of 
"  common  sheep,"  which  are  annually  driven  eastward  to  find 
a  market.  A  single  proper  cross  of  English  blood  on  these 
sheep  would  produce  a  stock  which  it  would  cost  little  -more 
to  raise  than  it  now  costs  to  raise,  common  sheep  irC  the  most 
profitable  way,  and  which  would  habitually  command  50  per 
cent,  more  in  market  and  be  ready  for  market  a  year  earlier 
than  the  common  sheep.  They  would  require  good  feed  and 
consequently  not  overstocked  ranges  in  summer,  and  comfort- 
able sheds  and  an  abundance  of  corn  in  winter.  In  regions 
where  the  latter  can  be  grown  more  cheaply  than  its  equiva- 
lent in  meadow  hay  in  the  Atlantic  States,  nay,  more  cheaply 
than  an  equivalent  of  prairie  hay  can  be  cut  and  stored  on 
the  same  farm,  it  is  a  sufficiently  cheap  feed  ;  and  no  one  will 
fatten  sheep  more  rapidly  or  produce  more  wool.*  The  value 
of  the  wool  would  not  be  lessened  by  any  of  the  proper 
English  crosses,  and  would  be  considerably  increased  by  some 
of  them. 

The  selection  of  the  English  family  for  the  purposes  of 
the  above  cross  should  be  made  with  strict  reference  to  local 
circumstances.  On  rich,  sufficiently  moist  lands,  unsubject  to 
summer  drouth,  bearing  an  abundance  of  the  domesticated 
grasses,  and  near  good  local  mutton  markets,  the  unrivalled 
earliness  of  maturity  in  the  Leicester  would  give  it  great 
advantages  ;  but  it  would  bear  no  even  partial  deprivation  of 
feed,  no  hardships  of  any  kind,  and  no  long  drives  to  distant 
markets.  The  Cotswold  is  a  hardier,  better  working  and 

for  breeding  purposes,  to  be  sold  as  mutton  :  and,  living  in  the  mutton-growing  region, 
and  having  more  land  than  is  necessary  for  his  breeding  flock,  he  pursues  the  follow- 
ing course.  He  purchases  the  common  sheep  of  the  Western  States  —  say,  one  part 
Merino  to  three  parts  of  coarse-wooled  varieties  —  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  be  driven 
eastward,  about  mid-summer  or  a  little  later.  He  has  generally,  in  past  years,  bought 
good  ones  from  $2.50  to  $3.00  a  head.  It  is  necessary  that  they  have  some  Menno 
blood  or  they  will  not  take  the  ram  early  enough.  He  puts  them  to  a  South  Down  ram 
as  near  as  practicable  to  the  first  of  September.  The  ewes  are  kept  on  hay  in  winter 
until  just  before  lambing,  when  they  get  turnips,  and  after  lambing,  meal  or  bran  slop 
in  addition.  The  lambs  are  also  fed  separately.  Theyiare  sold  when  they  reach  40  Ibs. 
weight,  and  all  are  generally  disposed  of  by  first  of  June.  They  have  always  brought 
$5  a  head  on  the  average.  The  ewes  having  only  to  provide  for  themselves  during 
summer  get  into  good  condition,  and  a  little  grain  fed  to  them  after  frost  has  touched 
the  grass  ripens  them  for  the  butcher.  They,  too,  have  sold  for  $5  a  head,  on  the 
average.  If  the  fleece,  manure,  and  one  dollar  a  head  in  addition,  will  pay  for  the 
keeping,  this  leaves  200  per  cent,  net  profit.  One  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent,  ought  to 
leave  a  margin  wide  enough  for  all  casualties.  See  Mr.  Thome's  letter  to  me  in  my 
Report  on  Fine -Wool  Husbandry,  18ti2,  p.  104. 

*  I  mean  corn  cut  up  and  cured  with  all  the  ears  on,  and  fed  out  in  that  state.  The 
system  of  Western  keeping  and  corn  feeding  will  be  fully  examined  in  Chapter  XXI 
of  this  volume. 


136     ENGLISH  BREEDS  ADAPTED  TO  SUCH  CROSSES. 

driving  sheep,  inferior  to  the  Leicester  in  no  particular,  which 
would  be  very  essential  in  such  situations  ;  and  I  cannot  but 
think  that,  for  the  object  under  consideration,  those  sub- 
families of  it  which  have  not  been  too  deeply  infused  with 
Leicester  blood,  offer  excellent  materials  for  a  cross.  The 
different  Down  families  will  bear  shorter  keep  than  the  pre- 
ceding, and  will  range  over  larger  surfaces  to  obtain  it. 
They  are  considerably  hardier  than  the  Leicesters,  or  those 
families  of  the  improved  Cotswolds  which  have  much 
Leicester  blood.  They  can  endure  slight  and  temporary 
deprivation  of  food  better  than  the  long-wools  ;  but  it  is  a 
mistake  to  suppose  that  any  mutton  breed  or  family  will 
fully,  or  profitably,  attain  the  objects  of  its  production,  with- 
out abundance  of  suitable  food  being  the  rule,  and  depriva- 
tions of  it  any  more  than  the  occasional  exception.*  The 
Downs  also  produce  better  mutton  ;  and  the  dark  legs  and 
faces  of  the  half-bloods  always  gives  them  a  readier  and 
better  market.  But  the  half-blood  Downs  would  generally 
carry,  less  wool  than  the  half-blood  long-wools. 

In  hardiness,  patience  of  short  keep,  and  adaptability  to 
driving  long  distances,  any  of  the  half-bloods  would  surpass 
their  English  ancestors,  and  would,  under  the  conditions 
already  stated,  generally  flourish  vigorously  in  our  Western 
States.  If  the  views  here  expressed  of  the  value  of  such  a 
cross  are  even  approximately  correct,  the  utility  of  embark- 
ing in  it  at  once,  and  the  immense  advantages  which  would 
thereby  accrue  to  individuals  and  to  our  whole  country,  must 
be  apparent  to  all  eyes. 

Though  the  crossing  of  mutton  breeds  has,  in  many 
instances,  entirely  different  objects  from  those  sought  in 
crossing  sheep  kept  specially  for  j;he  production  of  wool,  and 
though,  consequently,  the  proper  modes  of  crossing  in  the 
two  cases  often  vary  essentially,  still  the  general  views  ex- 
pressed at  page  130  in  regard  to  unmeaning,  aimless  and 
unnecessary  crossing,  are  as  applicable  to  the  English  mutton 
sheep  as  to  the  Merino. 

RECAPITULATION. — I  will  now,  for  greater  convenience  of 
reference,  recapitulate  the  principal  positions  taken  in  this 
chapter. 

I.    That  it  is  wholly  inexpedient  to  cross  Merino  sheep  with 

*  I  speak  of  course  of  sheep  which  are  grown  only  for  the  tmtcher,  the  leading 
objects  of  whose  production  is  high  condition  and  early  maturity. 


KULES   OP   CROSSING   RECAPITULATED.  137 

any  other  breed  to  improve  the  Merino  in  any  of  the   charac- 
teristics now  sought  in  that  breed. 

II.  That   while  an   infusion  of  Merino  blood  is   highly 
beneficial   to   unimproved   coarse   families,    to    increase  the 
fineness  and  quality  of  their  wool,  it  injures  the  improved 
mutton    races   more    in    size,  early   maturity,  propensity  to 
fatten  and  prolificacy  in   breeding  than   it   benefits  them  in 
respect  to  the  fleece,  or  otherwise. 

III.  That  no  valuable  intermediate  family  of  permanent 
hereditary  character  has  yet  been  formed,  or  is  likely  to  be 
formed,  by  crossing  between  Merinos  and  coarse  sheep ;  and 
that  the  only  successful  continuous  cross   between  them  is 
when  the  object  is  to  merge   a  coarse-wooled  family  wholly 
in  the  Merino,  and  when  the  breeding  is  steadily  continued 
toward  the  Merino  (i.  e.,  when  no  ram  is  ever  used  but  the 
full-blood  Merino.) 

IV.  That  an  infusion  of  the  blood  of  one  coarse-wooled 
breed  has  been  supposed,  in  a  very  few  instances,  to  benefit 
another  coarse-wooled  breed,  but  that  as  a  general  thing  it  is 
much  safer  to  avoid  all  crossing  between  distinct  breeds. 

V.  That  crossing  between  different  families  of  the  same 
breed,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  permanent  sub-families, 
has,  both  among  the  Merinos  and  English  sheep,  resulted 
highly  favorably  in  many  instances  ;  but  that,  nevertheless, 
the  instances  of  failure  have  been  much  more  numerous ;  that 
it  is  not  expedient  to  cross  even  different  families  of  the  same 
breed  for  this  object,  except  in  pursuance  of  a  well-digested 
and  definite  plan,  founded  on  some  experimental  knowledge 
of  the  subject ;  and  finally,  that  siich  crosses  (like  all  others) 
should  only  be  made  when  the  necessary  materials  for  the 
desired  improvement  cannot  be  found  within   one   of  the 
families  (in  other  cases  breeds)  which  it  is  proposed  to  cross 
together. 

VI.  That  crossing  between  different  families  of  the  same 
breed  for  the  purpose  of  merging  one  family  in  another  is 
still  more  likely  to   prove  successful :  but  that,  in  attaining 
either  this   or  the  preceding  object,  it  is  desirable  to  unite 
families  presenting   the  fewest   differences,  and  to  limit  the 
cross  to  as  few  families  as  the  circumstances  admit  of. 

VII.  That  for  the  purposes  of  mutton  production  it  is 
highly  expedient  to  breed  rams  of  the  best  mutton  families 
with  ewes  of  hardier  and  more  easily  kept  local  families  — 
but  that,  in  such  cases,  it  is  almost  uniformly  advisable  to 
stop  with  the  first  cross.     That  such   a  system  to  produce 


138  BULKS    OF   CROSSING   RECAPITULATED. 

early  lambs  for  the  butcher  on  sterile  and  exposed  situations 
of  the  mutton  region  proper,  or  to  produce  earlier  and  better 
mutton  on  the  natural  pastures  and  corn-producing  soils  of 
the  West,  where  its  production  as  a  leading  object  is 
preferred  to  the  production  of  wool,  would  redound  enor- 
mously to  individual  profit  and  to  public  utility. 

VIII.  That  with  all  breeds  and  families,  crossing  for  the 
sake  of  crossing,  without  a  definite  and  well  understood 
object  —  under  the  vague  impression  that  it  is  in  itself  bene- 
ficial to  health  or  thrift,  or  that  some  benefit,  the  character  of 
which  cannot  be  anticipated,  is  likely  to  spring  from  it — is  in 
the  highest  degree  improper  and  absurd.  That  in  using  rams 
of  the  same  breed  and  family  taken  from  different  and  not 
directly  related  flocks,  the  utmost  care  should  be  used  to 
select  such  only  as  conform  as  nearly  as  practicable  to  a 
uniform  standard  of  qualities,  which  the  owner  should  have 
previously  adopted  as  the  settled  one  of  his  flock. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

SPBING  MANAGEMENT, 

CATCHING    AND    HANDLING TUKNING    OUT    TO    GRASS TAG- 
GING  BUBS LAMBING PROPER   PLACE    FOR   LAMBING 

MECHANICAL    ASSISTANCE    IN   LAMBING INVERTED  WOMB 

MANAGEMENT    OF    NEW-BORN    LAMBS ARTIFICIAL   BREED- 

I\<; CHILLED    LAMBS CONSTIPATION CUTTING   TEETH 

PINNING DIARRHEA    OR    PURGING. 

CATCHING  AND  HANDLING  SHEEP. —  As  nearly  every 
operation  of  practical  sheep  husbandry  is  necessarily  attended 
with  the  catching  and  handling  of  sheep,  I  will 
make  these  the  first  of  those  practical  manipula- 
tions which  I  am  now  to  describe.  A  sheep 
should  always  be  caught  by  throwing  the  hands 
about  the  neck;  or  by  seizing  one  hind  leg 
immediately  above  the  hock  with  the  hand ;  or 
by  hooking  the  crook  round  it  at  the  same  place. 
When  thus  caught  by  the  hand,  the  sheep  should 
be  drawn  gently  back  until  the  disengaged  hand 
can  be  placed  in  front  of  its  neck.  The  crook 
is  very  convenient  to  reach  out  and  draw  a  sheep 
from.,  a  number  huddled  by  a  dog  or  in  a  corner, 
without  the  shepherd's  making  a  spring  for  it 
and  thus  putting  the  rest  to  flight ;  and  a  person 
accustomed  to  its  use  will  catch  moderately  tame 
sheep  almost  anywhere  with  this  implement. 
But  it  must  be  handled  with  care.  It  should  be 
used  with  a  quick  but  gentle  motion  —  and  the  ERD,g 

caught  sheep  immediately  drawn   back  rapidly     "CROOK*?  8 
enough  to  prevent  it  from  springing  to  one  side  or  the  other, 
and  thus  wrenching   the   leg,   or   throwing  itself  down,  by 
exerting  its  force  at  an  angle  with  the  line  of  draft  in  the 

*  The  cut  represents  the  crook  with  but  a  small  portion  of  the  handle.    This 
is  made  seven  or  eight  feet  long,  of  light,  strong  wood. 


140  USE    OF   CROOK  —  HANDLING   SHEEP. 

crook.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  hook  the  crook  to  a  sheep 
when  it  is  so  deep  in  a  huddle  with  others  that  they  are  liable 
to  spring  against  the  caught  one,  or  against  the  handle  of  the 
crook,  either  of  which  may  occasion  a  severe  lateral  strain  on 
the  leg.  When  the  sheep  is  drawn  within  reach,  the  leg 
held  by  the  crook  should  at  once  be  seized  by  the  hand,  and 
the  crook  removed. 

A  sheep  should  be  lifted  either  by  placing  both  arms 
around  its  body,  immediately  back  of  the  fore-legs;  or  by 
standing  sideways  to  it  and  placing  one  arm  before  the  fore- 
legs and  the  other  behind  the  hind-legs  ;  or  by  throwing  one 
arm  round  the  fore  parts  and  taking  up  the  sheep  between  the 
arm  and  the  hip ;  or  by  lifting  it  with  the  left  arm  under  the 
brisket,  the  right  hand  grasping  the  thigh  on  the  other  side, 
so  that  the  sheep  lays  on  the  left  arm  with  its  back  against  the 
catcher's  body..  The  two  first  modes  are  handiest  and  safest 
with  large  sheep ;  the  -third  mode  is  very  convenient  with  small 
sheep  or  lambs ;  and  a  change  between  them  all  operates  as  a 
relief  to  the  catcher  who  has  a  large  number  to  handle. 

Under  no  circumstances  whatever  should  a  sheep  be 
seized,  and  much  less  lifted,  by  the  wool.  The  skin  is  thus 
sometimes  literally  torn  from  the  flesh,  and  even  where  this 
extent  of  injury  is  not  inflicted,  killing  and  skinning  would 
invariably  disclose  more  or  less  congestion  occasioned  by 
lacerating  the  cellular  tissue  between  the  skin  and  flesh,  and 
thus  prove  how  much  purely  unnecessary  pain  and  injury  has 
been  inflicted  on  an  unoffending  and  valuable  animal,  by  the 
ignorance  or  brutality  of  its  attendant.  * 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  enforced  that  gentleness  in 
every  manipulation  and  movement  connected  with  sheep  is  the 
first  and  one  of  the  main  conditions  of  success  in  managing 
them.  They  should  be  taught  to  fear  no  injury  from  man. 
They  should  be  made  tame  and  even  affectionate  —  so  that 
they  will  follow  their  keeper  about  the  field  —  and  so  that, 
in  the  stable,  they  will  scarcely  rise  to  get  out  of  his  way. 
Wild  sheep  are  constantly  suffering  some  loss  or  deprivation 
themselves,  and  constantly  occasioning  some  annoyance  or 
damage  to  their  owner;  and  under  the  modern  system  of 
winter  stable-management,  it  is  difficult  to  get  them  through 
the  yeaning  season  with  safety  to  their  lambs. 

*  Let  him  who  doubts  the  impropriety  of  lifting  a  sheep  by  the  wool,  have  himself 
lifted  a  few  times  by  his  hair !  And  let  him  who  falls  into  a  passion  and  kicks  and 
thumps  sheep  because  they  crowd  about  him  and  impede  his  movements  when  feeding, 
or  because  they  attempt  to  get  away  when  he  has  occasion  to  hold  them,  &c.,  &c.,  test 
the  comfort  and  utility  of  these  processes  in  the  same  way —  by  having  them  tried  on 
himself '  Snob  a  person  o»i.gM  not  to  lack  this  convincing  Kind  of  experience. 


TURNING  TO   GRASS  —  TAGGING.  141 

TURNING  OUT  TO  GRASS. — In  northern  regions,  where 
sheep  are  yarded  and  fed  only  on  dry  feed  in  winter,  they 
*  should  be  put  upon  their  grass  feed,  in  the  spring,  gradually. 
It  is  better  to  turn  them  out  before  the  new  grass  has  started 
much,  and  only  during  a  portion  of  each  day  for  the  first  few 
days,  returning  them  to  their  yards  at  night  and  feeding  them 
with  dry  hay.  If  this  course  is  pursued,  they  make  the 
change  without  that  purging  and  sudden  debility  which 
ensues  when  they  are  kept  up  later,  and  abruptly  changed 
from  entire  dry  to  entire  green  feed.  This  last  is  always  a 
very  perilous  procedure  in  the  case  of  poor  or  weak  sheep, 
particularly  if  they  are  yearlings  or  pregnant  ewes. 

TAGGING. — After  the  fresh  grass  starts  vigorously  in  the 
spring,  sheep  are  apt  to  purge  or  scour,  notwithstanding  the 
preceding  precautions.  The  wool  about  and  below  the  vent 
becomes  covered  with  dung,  which  dries  into  hard  knobs  if 
the  scouring  ceases ;  otherwise,  it  accumulates  in  a  filthy 
mass  which  is  unsightly,  unhealthy,  and  to  a  certain  degree 
dangerous  —  for  maggots  are  not  unfrequently  generated 
under  it.  In  the  case  of  a  ewe,  it  is  a  great  annoyance,  and 
sometimes  damage  to  her  lamb,  for  the  filth  trickles  down  the 
udder  and  teats  so  that  it  mingles  with  the  milk  drawn  by 
the  lamb,  and  often  miserably  besmears  its  face.  I  have  seen 
the  lamb  thus  prevented  from  attempting  to  suck  at  all. 
Whether  the  dung  is  wet  or  dry  it  cannot  be  washed  out  by 
brook  washing :  it  must  sooner  or  later  be  cut  from  the  fleece 
and  at  the  waste  of  considerable  wool. 

Tagging  sheep  before  they  are  let  out  to  grass,  prevents 
this.     This  is  cutting  away  the  wool  around  the 
vent  and   from  the   roots   of  the   tail  down  the 
inside  of  the  thigh,  (as  shown  in  cut,)  in  a  strip 
wide   enough   so   that  the  dung  will  fall   to   the 
ground  without  touching  any  wool.     Wool  on  or 
about  the  udder  which  is  liable  to  impede  the 
lamb  in  sucking,  should  also  be  cut  away  —  but 
not  to  an  unnecessay  degree  during  cold  weather,  so  as  to 
denude  this  delicate  part  of  adequate  protection.    Tagging  is 
sometimes  performed  by  an  attendant  holding  the  sheep  on 
its  rump  with  its  legs  drawn  apart  for  the  convenience  of  the 
shearer.     But  it  is  best  done  by  the  attendant  holding  the 
sheep  on  its  side  on  a  table,  or  on  a  large  box,  covered,  except 
at  one  end,  and  the  breech  of  the  sheep  is  placed  at  the 
opening,  so  that  the  tags  will  drop  into  it  as  they  are  cut 


142  BUES  —  LAMBING. 

away.  This  is  the  only  safe  position  in  which  to  place  a 
breeding  ewe  for  the  operation,  when  near  to  lambing,  unless  s 
it  be  on  her  feet  —  and  tagging  on  the  feet  is  excessively 
inconvenient.  If  a  ewe  is  handled  with  violence,  there  is 
danger  of  so  changing  the  position  of  the  foetus  in  the  womb 
as  to  render  its  presentation  at  birth  more  or  less  irregular 
and  dangerous.  But  if  the  operation  is  performed  as  last 
described,  and  the  catching  and  handling  are  done  with 
proper  care,  there  is  no  danger  whatever. 

BUES. —  Pastures  containing  dry  weeds  of  the  previous 
year,  which  bear  burs  or  prickles  liable  to  get  into  the  fleece, 
should  be  carefully  looked  over  before  sheep  are  turned  on 
them  in  the  spring,  and  all  such  weeds  brought  together  and 
burned.  The  common  Burdock  (Arctium  lappa,}  the  large 
and  small  Hounds-tongue,  or  Tory-weed  ( Cynoglossum  offici- 
nale  et  Virginicum  ;*)  and  the  wild  Bur-marigold,  Beggar- 
ticks,  or  Cuckold,  (J3idens  frondosa,)  are  peculiarly  injurious 
to  wool.  The  damage  that  a  large  quantity  of  them  would  do 
to  half  a  dozen  fleeces,  would  exceed  the  cost  of  exterminating 
them  from  a  large  field.  The  dry  prickles  of  thistles  are  also 
hurtful  to  wool,  and  they  render  it  excessively  disagreeable 
to  wash  and  shear  the  sheep.  They  readily  snap  off  in  the 
fleece,  when  sheep  are  grazing  about  and  among  them  in 
early  spring. 

LAMBING. —  It  used  to  be  the  aim  of  flock-masters  in  the 
Northern  States,  to  have  their  lambs  yeaned  from  about  the 
1st  to  the  15th  of  May  —  particularly  when  Saxon  and  grade 
Saxon  sheep  were  in  vogue.  Small  flocks  with  abundant 
range  would  grow  up  their  lambs,  born  even  at  this  season, 
large  and  strong  enough  to  winter  well ;  but  in  the  case  of 
large  flocks  they  were  not  sure,  or  very  likely  to  do  so,  except 
under  highly  favorable  circumstances.  The  least  scarcity  of 
good  fall  feed  told  very  destructively  on  them  —  and  if  there 
were  those  which  were  dropped  as  late  as  June,  they 
generally  perished  before  the  close  of  winter. 

From  the  15th  of  April  to  the  15th  of  May  is  now  the 
preferred  yeaning  season  among  a  majority  of  Northern 
flock-masters.  Some,  however,  have  it  commence  as  early 


*  The  first  named  variety  grows  at  the  roots  of  stnmps  and  by  the  sides  of  decaying 
logs,  etc.,  along  road-sides,  and  in  new  cleared  and  other  fields— the  other  grows  more 
particularly  in  woods  and  thickets.  The  last  variety  has  finer  stems,  and  its  burs  are 
considerably  smaller,  but  I  think  more  difficult  to  remove  from  wool. 


PROPER   PLACE   FOR  LAMBING.  143 

as  the  1st  of  April,  and  those  who  breed  rams  for  sale,  as 
early  as  the  10th  or  15th  of  March.  These  very  early  lambs,  if 
properly  fed  and  kept  growing,  are  about  as  much  matured  at 
their  first,  as  late  dropped  ones  are  at  their  second  shearing.* 
It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  lambs  yeaned  earlier  than 
May,  in  the  Northern  States,  must,  as  a  general  thing,  be 
yeaned  in  stables.  But  this  in  reality  diminishes  instead  of 
increasing  the  labors  of  the  shepherd.  The  yeaning  flock  is 
thus  kept  together,  and  no  time  is  spent  traversing  pastures 
to  see  if  any  ewe  or  lamb  requires  assistance,  or  in  getting  a 
weak  lamb  and  its  dam  to  shelter,  or  in  driving  in  the  flock 
at  night  and  before  storms.  And  the  yeaning  season  may 
thus  be  got  through  with  before  it  is  time  for  the  farmer  to 
commence  his  summer  work  in  the  fields. 

PROPER  PLACE  FOR  LAMBING.  —  Stable  yeaning,  too,  is 
safest,-  (though  I  once  thought  otherwise,)  even  in  quite 
pleasant  weather,  provided  the  stables  are  roomy,  properly 
littered  down  and  ventilated,  and  provided  the  sheep  are 
sufficiently  docile  to  allow  themselves  to  be  handled  and  their 
keeper  to  pass  round  among  them,  without  crowding  from  side 
to  side  and  running  over  their  lambs.  While  the  stables 
should  not  be  kept  hot  and  tight,  they  should  be  capable  of 
being  closed  all  round ;  and  they  should  be  so  close  that  in 
a  cold  night  the  heat  of  the  sheep  will  preserve  a  moderate 
temperature.  On  the  other  hand,  they  should  be  provided 
with  movable  windows,  or  ventilators,  so  that  excess  of  heat, 
or  impure  air,  can  always  be  avoided. 

Excessive  care  is  not  requisite  with  hardy  sheep  in  lamb- 
ing, and  too  much  interference  is  not  beneficial.  It  is  well 
to  look  into  the  sheep -house  at  night,  the  last  thing  before 
going  to  bed,  to  see  that  all  is  well ;  but  then  if  all  is  well, 
many  even  of  the  best  Merino  shepherds  leave  their  flocks 
undisturbed  until  morning, "  holding  that  the  lamb  which 
cannot  get  up,  suck,  and  take  care  of  itself  until  morning  in 
a  clean,  well-strawed,  comfortable  stable,  is  not  worth  raising. 
Our  English  shepher.ds,  who  have  charge  of  choice  breeding 
flocks,  usually  go  round  once  in  two  hours  through  the  night 


*  We  have'  seen  that  Mr.  Chamberlain,  the  importer  and  leading  breeder  of  the 
Silcsian  Merinos  in  this  country,  has  his  lambs  dropped  from  November  to  February. 
Under  the  admirable  arrangements  of  Mr.  C.,  and  under  the  admirable  handling  of  his 
German  shepherd,  this  works  well,  and  a  lamb  is  rarely  lost:  and  being  early  taught 
to  eat  roots,  <ftc.,  separate  from  their  dams,  they  attain  a  remarkable  earliness  of  ma- 
turity. Such  a  system  would  not,  of  course,  succeed  with  ordinary  arrangements  and 
handling,  nor  would  it  be  profitable  for  ordinary  purposes. 


144  ASSISTANCE    IN   LAMBING. 

during  the  height  of  the  lambing  season.  This  maybe  rather 
more  necessary  among  breeds  which  are  accustomed  to  bring 
forth  twins  —  for  one  of  a  pair  is  less  likely  to  be  missed  and 
cared  for  by  the  mother,  if  it  accidentally  gets  separated  from 
her.  But  unless  the  sheep  are  extremely  tame,  more  harm 
than  good,  even  in  this  particular,  would  result  from  disturb- 
ing them  in  the  night. 

MECHANICAL  ASSISTANCE  IN  LAMBING. — The  Merino  ewe 
rarely  requires  mechanical  assistance  in  lambing.  The  high- 
kept  English  ewe  requires  it  oftener.  But  in  neither  case 
should  it  be  rendered,  if  the  presentation  of  the  lamb  is 
proper,  until  nature  has  exhausted  her  own  energies  in  the 
effort,  and  prostration  begins  to  supervene.  The  labors  are 
often  protracted,  or  renewed  at  intervals,  through  many  hours, 
and  finally  terminate  successfully  without  the  slightest  interfer- 
ence. But  if  the  ewe  ceases  to  rise,  if  her  efforts  to  expel  the 
foetus  are  less  vigorous,  and  her  strength  is  obviously  begin- 
ning to  fail,  the  shepherd  should  approach  her,  without 
alarming  or  disturbing  her,  if  possible,  and  at  once  render  his 
aid.  The  natural  presentation  of  the  lamb  is  with  the  nose 
first  and  the  fore-feet  on  each  side  of  it.  The  shepherd  with 
every  throe  of  the  sheep  should  draw  very  gently  on  each 
fore-leg,  alternately.  If  this  does  not  suffice,  he  should 
attempt  to  assist  the  passage  of  the  head  with  his  finger, 
preceding  slowly  and  with  extreme  caution.  If  the  head  is 
too  large  to  be  drawn  out  thus  gently,  both  the  fore-legs 
must  be  grasped,  the  fingers  (after  being  greased  or  oiled) 
introduced  into  the  vagina,  and  the  head  and  legs  drawn 
forward  together  with  as  much  force  as  is  safe.  But  haste  or 
violence  will  destroy  the  lamb,  if  not  the  dam  also.  If  the 
former  cannot  be  drawn  forth  by  the  application  of  considera- 
ble force,  it  is  better  to  dissect  it  away.  In  these  operations 
the  ewe  must  be  held  by  an  assistant. 

If  the  fore-legs  do  not  protrude  far  enough  to  be  grasped, 
the  head  of  the  lamb  is  to  be  pushed  back  and  down,  which 
will  generally  bring  them  into  place  —  or  they  may  be  felt  for 
by  the  hand  and  brought  into  place.  If  the  fore-legs  protrude 
and  the  head  is  turned  back,  then  the  foetus  must  be  pushed 
back  into  the  womb,  and  the  head  brought  along  with  the 
legs  into  natural  position.  There  are  several  other  false 
presentations,  such  as  having  the  crown  of  the  head,  the  side, 
back  or  rump  come  first  to  the  mouth  of  the  womb.  The 
only  directions  which  I  can  render  intelligible  in  all  such 


INVERTED   WOMB.  145 

cases  is  to  say  that  the  lamb  should  be  pushed  back  into  the 
womb,  and  either  placed  in  natural  position  or  its  hinder  legs 
allowed  to  come  first  into  the  vagina.  A  lamb  is  bom 
perfectly  safely  with  its  hind  feet  first.  In  applying  force  to 
pull  away  the  lamb,  it  should  always  be  exerted  if  practicable 
simultaneously  with  the  efforts  of  nature  toward  the  same 
end,  provided  the  throes  are  continued  and  are  of  reasonably 
frequent  occurrence.  But  on  the  other  hand,  if  a  throe  occurs 
while  the  hand  of  the  operator  is  in  the  womb,  he  should  at 
once  suspend  every  movement  until  the  throe  is  over,  or  else 
there  will  be  great  danger  of  his  rupturing  the  womb  —  a  • 
calamity  always  fatal.  But  if  the  throes  are  suspended,  or 
only  recur  faintly  and  at  long  intervals,  and  the  strength  is 
failing,  the  operator  should,  as  a  dernier  resort,  attempt  to 
get  away  the  lamb  independently  of  them;  and  he  may  even, 
where  death  is  certain  without  it,  use  a  degree  of  force  that 
would  be  justifiable  under  no  other  circumstances. 

The  English  shepherds  administer  cordials  to  their  ewes 
during  protracted  labors  to  increase  their  efforts  or  to  keep 
up  their  strength.  In  some  cases,  they  give  ginger  and  the 
ergot  of  rye  *  —  in  others  oatmeal  gruel  and  linseed.f  They 
also  sometimes  administer  restoratives  after  long  and  exhaust- 
ing parturition.  One  of  these  is  thus  compounded:  —  To 
half  a  pint  of  oatmeal  gruel  is  added  a  gill  of  sound  "beer 
warmed,  and  from  two  to  four  drachms  of  laudanum.  This  is 
given  and  repeated  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  hours,  as  the 
case  may  require ;  the  same  quantities  of  nitric  ether  being 
substituted  for  the  laudanum  if  the  pain  is  less  violent  and 
the  animal  seems  to  rally  a  little.  J  The  diseases  occurring 
after  parturition,  will  be  mentioned  among  the  general 
diseases  of  sheep. 

INVESTED  WOMB. —  The  womb  is  sometimes  inverted  and 
appears  externally  —  especially  when  parturition  has  been 
severe,  and  force  applied  for  the  extraction  of  the  foetus.  It 
should  be  very  carefully  cleansed  of  any  dirt  with  tepid 
water  —  washed  with  strong  alum-water  —  or  a  decoction  of 
oak  bark —  and  then  returned.  If  again  protruded,  its  return 
should  be  followed  by  taking  a  stitch  (rather  deep,  to  prevent 
tearing  out,)  with  small  twine,  through  the  lips  of  the  vagina, 

*  Youatt  on  Sheep,  502.    Amounts  not  stated, 
t  Spooner  on  Sheep,  360.    Amounts  not  stated. 

|  See  W.  C.  Sibbald's  prize  report  "  On  the  Diseases  occurring  after  Parturition 
in  Cows  and  Sheep,  and  their  Remedies,"  Jour,  of  Royal  Ag'l  Soc.  of  England,  Vol. 

7 


146  MANAGEMENT   OF   NEW-BORN   LAMBS. 

by  means  of  a  curved  needle,  and  tying  those  lips  loosely 
enough  together  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  urine.  The 
parts  should  be  washed  frequently  with  alum-water  or  decoction 
of  oak  bark,  and  some  of  the  fluid  be  often  injected  with 
moderate  force  into  the  vagina.  If  this  fails  to  effect  a  cure 
and  the  protrusion  of  the-  womb  becomes  habitual,  it  should 
be  strongly  corded  close  to  the  vagina  (or  the  back  of  the 
sheep)  and  allowed  to  slough  off.  The  ewe  will  not,  of 
course,  breed  after  this  operation,  but  she  will  fatten  for  the 
butcher. 

MANAGEMENT  or  NEW-BORN  LAMBS. — If  a  lamb  can 
help  itself  from  the  outset,  it  is  better  not  to  interfere  in  any 
way  to  assist  it.  If  the  weather  is  mild,  if  the  ewe  apparently 
has  abundance  of  milk,  and  stands  kindly  for  her  lamb,  and  if 
the  latter  is  strong  and  disposed  to  help  itself,  there  is  usually 
little  danger.  But  if  the  lamb  is  weak  and  makes  no 
successful  efforts  to  suck,  and  particulai'ly  when  this  occurs  in 
cold  or  raw  weather,  the  attendant  —  the  "  lamber,"  as  he  is 
called  in  England —  should  at  once  render  his  aid.  The  ewe 
should  not  be  thrown  down,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  but  the 
lamb  assisted,  if  necessary,  to  stand  in  the  natural  posture  of 
sucking,  a  teat  placed  in  its  mouth,  and  its  back  and 
particularly  the  rump  about  the  roots  of  its  tail  lightly  and 
rapidly  rubbed  with  a  finger,  which  it  mistakes  for  the  licking 
of  its  dam.  This  last  generally  produces  an  immediate  effort 
to  suck.  If  it  does  not,  a  little  milk  should  be  milked  from 
the  teat  into  its  mouth,  and  the  licking  motion  of  the  finger 
continued.  These  efforts  will  generally  succeed  speedily  — 
but  occasionally  a  lamb  is  very  stupid  or  very  obstinate.  In 
that  case,  gentleness  and  perseverance  are  the  only  remedies, 
and  they  will  always  in  the  end  triumph.  Too  speedy  resort 
to  the  spoon  or  sucking-bottle  frequently  causes  a  lamb  to 
rely  on  this  kind  of  aid,  and  a  number  of  days  may  pass  by 
before  it  can  be  taught  to  help  itself  properly,  even  from  a  full 
udder  of  milk. 

ARTIFICIAL  FEEDING. — If  the  dam  of  a  new-born  lamb  has 
not  good  milk  ready  for  it,  it  is  better  to  allow  it  to  fill  itself 
the  first  time  from  another  ewe,  or  from  a  couple  of  ewes, 
which  can  spare  the  milk  from  their  own  lambs.  And  it  is 
well  to  continue  the  same  supply  two  or  three  days,  if 
there  is  a  prospect  that  the  dam  will  in  that  time  have  milk — 
for  ewes'  milk  is  better  for  young  lambs  than  cows'  milk.  If 


ARTIFICIAL   FEEDING.  147 

cows'  milk  must  be  resorted  to,  it  should  by  all  means  be  that 
of  a  new -milch  cow.  This  is  generally  fed  from  a  bottle 
having  on  its  nose  an  artificial  India-rubber  lambs'  nipple  — 
now  manufactured  and  sold  for  the  express  purpose.  But 
milk  flows  less  freely  from  a  bottle  than  from  a  vessel  having 
two  vents,  and  accordingly  tea-pots;  or  other  vessels  manufac- 
tured for  the  purpose,  with  spouts  so  constructed  as  to  hold 
the  artificial  nipple,  are  now  more  used.  *  Milk  should  be 
fed  at  about  its  natural  temperature — but  when  cold,  never 
be  heated  rapidly  enough  to  scald  it,  which  renders  it 
costive  in  its  effects.  A  new-born  lamb  fed  on  other  ewes', 
or  on  cows'  milk,  should  be  fed  about  six  times,  at  equal 
intervals  between  sun- rise  and  ten  o'clock  at  night,  and 
allowed  each  time  to  take  all  it  wants,  f  After  two  or  three 
days  it  need  not  be  fed  so  often. 

Some  farmers^  feed  from  a  spoon  instead  of  a  nipple  — 
others  milk  directly  from  a  cow's  teat  into  the  mouth  of  the 
lamb.  By  neither  mode  is  the  habit  and  disposition  to  suck 
as  well  preserved  —  and  by  both  modes,  and  especially  by 
the  last,  there  is  great  danger  of  the  milk  entering  the 
throat  so  rapidly  that  a  portion  of  it  will  be  forced  into  the 
lungs.  If  the  strangulation  of  the  weak  little  animal  at  the 
time  passes  unnoticed  by  the  careless  "lamber,"  a  rattling 
sound  will  soon  be  heard  in  the  lungs,  accompanying  each 
respiration ;  and  it  is  a  death  -  rattle.  I  never  knew  one  to 
recover. 

A  farrow  cow's  milk  is  unsuited  to  young  lambs,  and  it  is 
very  difficult  to  raise  them  on  it.  When  it  must  be  used,  it 
is  generally  mixed  with  a  little  "sale"  molasses,  as  that  made 
from  the  cane  is  familiarly  termed,  to  distinguish  it  from 
domestic  or  maple  molasses,  which  is  not  supposed  to  be 
equally  purgative  in  its  effects.  Others  do  not  mix  molasses 
with  the  milk,  but  in  lieu  of  it,  administer  a  teaspoonful  of 
lard  to  the  lamb  every  other  day.  J  A  farmer  of  my  acquaint- 
ance who  is  very  successful  in  raising  lambs,  feeds  in  such 
cases  beaten  eggs  with,  or  in  the  place  of,  milk.  This  is  a 
highly  nutritious  food,  and  he  informs  me  that  it  is  quite  as 

*  My  friend,  Mr.  Rich,  has  devised  a  good  substitute  by  winding  cloth  around  the 
spout  of  a  lamp-filler,  so  that  it  will  hold  the  artificial  nipple. 

t  Some  persons  do  not  allow  lambs  thus  to  fill  themselves  at  first.  If  the  lamb  ia 
fed  soon  after  birth,  and  then  as  often  as  above  recommended,  it  is  decidedly  best. 
15ut  if  a  lamb  has  been  for  some  hours  deprived  of  food  at  birth  — or  is  subsequently 
kept  on  very  scanty  feed — a  sudden  admission  to  an  unbounded  supply  is  undoubtedly 
hurtful  and  dangerous. 

t  Some  persons  mix  molasses,  and  others  molasses  and  water,  with  new  milch 
cows  milk.  1  used  to  do  this,  but  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  inexpedient. 


148  CHILLED    LAMBS. 

good  for  the  lamb  as  new  milk,  and  that  it  passes  the  bowels 
freely,  without  being  too  laxative. 

CHILLED  LAMBS. —  When  a  lamb  is  found  "chilled"  in 
cold  weather,  i.  e.,  unable  to  move,  or  swallow,  and  perhaps 
with  its  jaws  "set,"  no  time  is  to  be  lost.  It  can  not  be 
restored  by  mere  friction ;  and  if  only  wrapped  in  a  blanket 
and  put  in  a  warm  room,  it  will  inevitably  die.  It  should  at 
once  be  placed  in  a  heated  oven,  or  in  a  bath  of  water  about  as 
hot  as  can  be  comfortably  borne  by  the  hand.  The  restoration 
must  be  immediate,  and  to  effect  this  the  degree  of  warmth 
applied  greater  than  an  inexperienced  person  would  suppose  a 
lamb  capable  of  enduring.  Where  neither  oven  nor  water  are 
ready,  (one  of  these  always  ought  to  be  ready  at  such  times 
in  the  farm  house,)  the  lamb  should  be  held  over  a  fire  or 
over  coals,  constantly  turning  it,  rubbing  it  with  the  hands, 
bending  its  joints,  &c.  On  taking  it  from  the  water  it  should 
be  rubbed  thoroughly  dry.  If  sufficient  animation  is  restored 
for  it  to  suck,  and  it  at  once  fills  itself,  the  danger  is  over. 
But  if  it  revives  slowly,  or  remains  too  weak  or  languid  to 
suck,  it  should,  as  soon  as  it  can  swallow,*  receive  from  half  to 
a  full  teaspoonful  of  gin,  whiskey  or  other  spirits,  mixed  with 
enough  milk  for  a  feed  —  the  amount  of  the  spirits  being 
proportioned  to  the  size  and  apparent  necessities  of  the  lamb. 

If  taken  to  the  stable  to  suck  it  should  be  wrapped  in  a 
woolen  blanket  while  on  the  way,  if  the  cold  is  severe ;  and 
the  temperature  of  the  stable  will  decide  whether  it  is  safe  to 
leave  it  there,  or  whether  it  should  be  returned  to  the  house 
for  a  few  hours  longer.  If  returned,  it  should  not  be  placed 
in  a  room  heated  above  the  commpn  temperature  of  those 
occupied  by  a  family.  It  is  astonishing  from  how  near  a  point 
to  death  lambs  can  be  restored  by  the  above  means.  It  often 
appears  literally  like  a  re -animation  of  the  dead. 

If  a  lamb  is  found  beginning  to  be  chilled  —  inactive, 
stupid,  but  still  able  to  swallow  —  the  dose  of  spirits  above 
recommended  acts  on  it  like  a  chann.  If  it  will  not  drink  the 
mixture  from  the  sucking  bottle  —  which  is  scarcely  to  be 
expected  —  it  must  be  poured  down  it  carefully  with  a  spoon, 
giving  ample  time  to  swallow.  Some  administer  ground  black 
pepper  in  the  place  of  spirits.  It  is  not  so  prompt  or  so 
decided  in  its  effects,  and  its  effects  do  not  so  rapidly  pass 
away,  leaving  the  restored  functions  to  their  natural  action. 

*  Under  no  possible  circumstances  should  fluid  be  poured  down  the  throat  before 
the  lamb  can  swallow. 


CONSTIPATION   OK   COSTIVENESS.  149 

But,  in  emergency,  any  stimulus  should  be  resorted  to  which 
is  not  likely  to  be  followed  with  directly  injurious  results. 
One  of  the  most  skillful  shepherds  in  the  United  States 
administers  strong  tea  in  such  cases  —  in  extreme  ones,  tea 
laced  with  gin. 

All  lambs  which  get  an  insufficient  supply  of  milk  from 
their  dams,  or  from  other  ewes,  should  regularly  be  fed  cows' 
milk  from  the  sucking  bottle  two  or  three  times  a  day,  until 
the  amount  given  by  the  dam  can  be  increased  by  better 
keeping.  They  will  learn  to  come  for  it  as  regularly  as  lambs 
brought  up  entirely  by  hand.  If  the  sheep  are  not  yet  let  out 
to  grass,  those  deficient  in  milk  should,  with  their  lambs,  be 
separated  from  the  flock  and  fed  the  choicest  of  hay  and  roots, 
oatmeal,  bran-slop  or  the  like.  Some  persons  partition  off  a 
little  place  with  slats  which  stop  the  sheep,  but  which  allow 
the  free  ingress  and  egress  of  the  lambs ;  and  in  this  they  put 
a  rack  of  hay  for  the  lambs,  and  a  trough  into  which  is  daily 
sprinkled  a  little  meal.  The  lambs  soon  learn  to  eat  hay  and 
meal,  and  it  benefits  them  as  much  in  proportion  as  grown 
sheep.* 

CONSTIPATION  OB  COSTIVENESS. —  Lambs  fed  on  cows' 
milk,  or  fed  on  any  milk  artificially,  are  quite  subject  to 
constipation.  The  first  milk  of  the  mother,  too,  sometimes 
produces  this  effect,  f  A  lamb  that  gets  strayed  from  its  dam 
for  several  hours  and  then  surfeits  itself  on  a  full  udder  of 
milk  —  or  one  that  is  changed,  after  it  is  several  days  old, 
from  one  ewe  to  another  —  is  subject  to  constipation.  In  all 
these  cases  the  evacuations  cease,  or  they  are  hard  and  are 
expelled  with  great  difficulty.  The  lamb  becomes  dull, 
drooping,  disinclined  to  move  about,  and  lies  down  most  of 
the  time.  Its  belly  or  sides  usually  appear  a  little  more 
distended  than  usual.  It  becomes  torpid  —  sleeps  most  of  the 

*  Mr.  Chamberlain's  Silesian  lambs,  yeaned  in  early  winter,  are  thus  fed  separately 
all  winter — but  they,  according  to  the  German  custom,  are  caught  out  of  the  flock, 
and  confined  in  a  separate  place  during  most  of  each  day.  They  eat  at  their  racks  and 
troughs  as  regularly  as  the  old  sheep.  This  undoubtedly  materially  contributes  to  the 
extraordinary  size  they  obtain  the  flrst  year.  The  poet  Burns  had  a  good  idea  of  a 
shepherd's  duties!  Among  the  "Dying  words  of  Poor  Mailie,"  to  be  borne  to  her 
"  Master  dear,"  are  the  following,  in  respect  to  her  "  helpless  lambs  "  left  to  his  care  : 
"  O  bid  him  save  their  harmless  lives 

Frae  dogs,  'an  tods,  an'  butchers'  knives ! 

But  gie  them  guid  cow  milk  their  fill, 

Till  they  be  fit  to  fend  themsel' ; 

An'  tent  them  duly,  e'en  an'  morn, 

Wi'  teats  o'  hay  an'  rips  o'  corn." 

t  While  the  ewes  are  in  the  yards  and  before  they  are  let  out  to  grass.  After 
being  let  out  to  grass,  I  think  the  milk  of  the  mother  very  rarely  produces  this  effect. 


150  CUTTING   TEETH. 

time  —  and  if  not  relieved  speedily  dies.  This  not  unfre- 
quently  happens  when  the  lamb  is  a  number  of  days  old  and 
had  previously  appeared  healthy.  Constipation  is  liable  to 
attack  the  same  lamb  several  times  if  the  exciting  causes  are 
continued.  Cathartics  are  not  rapid  enough  in  their  action  to 
meet  the  case  at  the  stage  when  it  is  generally  first  observed. 
An  injection  of  milk  warmed  to  blood  heat,  with  a  sufficient 
infusion  of  molasses  to  give  it  a  chocolate  color,  should  at 
once  be  administered  with  a  small  syringe  —  say  two  ounces 
at  a  time  for  a  small  lamb,  and  three  for  a  larger  one.*  The 
lamb  is  held  up  perpendicularly  by  the  hind-legs,  so  that  the 
fore-feet  but  just  touch  the  floor,  during  and  for  a  moment 
after  the  injection.  If  hardened  dung  is  not  discharged  with 
the  fluid,  or  soon  afterwards,  the  injection  is  to  be  repeated. 
This  process  generally  gives  prompt  and  entire  relief,  but  if 
the  lamb  continues  inactive  and  dull,  the  tonic  contained  in 
half  a  dozen  teaspoonfulls  of  strong  boneset  or  thoroughwort 
(JEJupatorium  perfoliatum)  tea,  has  an  excellent  effect.  And 
where,  as  it  often  happens,  the  urinary  action  is  also  insufficient, 
pumpkin  seed  tea  is  the  readiest  and  safest  remedy  in  the 
hands  of  most  farmers.  The  syringe  and  the  injection 
constitute  the  very  sheet-anchor  of  artificial  lamb  raising. 
The  flock-master  had  better  be  without  all  other  remedies 
than  these. 

There  is  another  form  of  constipation  occurring  to  very 
young  lambs,  with  their  first  evacuations.  The  dung  (yet  of  a 
bright  yellow  color)  is  so  pasty  and  sticky  that  it  is  voided 
with  great  effort,  and  the  lamb  sometimes  utters  short  bleats, 
expressive  of  considerable  pain,  in  the  process.  The  injection 
is  here  also  the  most  rapid  remedy ;  but  two  or  three  spoonfuls 
of  hogs'  lard  administered  as  a  purgative,  will  usually  answer 
the  same  purpose. 

CUTTING  TEETH.  —  Sometimes  a  healthy  looking  lamb 
seems  strangely  disinclined  to  suck.  It  seizes  the  teat  as  if 
very  hungry,  but  soon  relinquishes  it.  It  repeats  this  perhaps 
once  or  twice,  and  then  gives  up  the  attempt.  On  examining 
its  mouth  it  will  be  found  that  the  front  teeth  are  not  through 
the  gums,  and  that  the  latter,  over  the  edges  of  the  teeth,  are 
sufficiently  inflamed  to  be  very  tender.  Drawing  the  back  of 
the  thumb  nail  across  the  teeth  with  sufficient  force  to  press 

*  It  is  not  necessary  to  be  exact.  There  are  about  eight  ounces  in  half  a  pint  of 
fluid ;  and  the  ordinary  teacup  or  water-tumbler  hold  half  a  pint. 


PINNING DIARRHEA.  151 

them  up  through  the  gums,  is  the  usual  resort ;  but  a  keen- 
edged  knife  or  lancet  inflicts  less  pain  and  leaves  the 
inflammation  to  subside  more  rapidly.  It  generally,  however, 
subsides  in  either  case  in  a  few  hours ;  but  it  is  well  enough  to 
watch  both  the  lamb  and  the  ewe  to  see  that  the  former  does 
not  suffer  for  food,  and  that  the  udder  of  the  latter  is  properly 
drawn. 

PINNING.  —  The  first  yellow,  gummy  excrements  of  the 
lamb  often  adhere  to  the  tail  and  about  the  vent,  and  if 
suffered  to  harden  there,  pin  down  the  tail  to  the  breech  and 
hinder  or  entirely  prevent  later  evacuations.  The  dung  should 
be  carefully  removed  and  the  parts  rubbed  with  pulverized 
dry  clay,  chalk,  or,  in  the  absence  of  anything  better,  dirt. 
If  there  is  a  tendency  to  a  recurrence  of  the  pinning,  docking 
the  tail  lessens  the  danger. 

DIAKRHEA  OR  PURGING. —  Lambs  which  suck  their  dams, 
very  rarely  purge,  and  if  they  do,  they  usually  scarcely 
require  attention.  If  a  fed  lamb  purges,  the  cause  should  be 
ascertained  and  discontinued — and  a  spoonful  of  prepared 
chalk  given  in  milk,  and  the  dose  repeated  after  a  few  hours, 
if  necessary. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

SPBING  MANAGEMENT  -  CONTINUED. 

CONGENITAL     GOITRE IMPERFECTLY     DEVELOPED     LAMBS 

RHEUMATISM  —  TREATMENT    OF    THE    EWE    AFTER   LAMBING 

—  CLOSED      TEATS  UNEASINESS  INFLAMED      UDDER  

DRYING       OFF DISOWNING     LAMBS  FOSTER       LAMBS  

DOCKING     LAMBS  —  CASTRATION. 

CONGENITAL  GOITRE,  OR  SWELLED  NECK. —  The  thyroid 
glands  are  small,  soft,  spongy  bodies  on  each  side  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  trachea,  (wind -pipe.)  Lambs  are  sometimes 
born  with  them  enlarged  to  once  or  twice  the  size  of  an 
almond,  and  they  then  have  the  feeling  of  a  firm,  separate  body, 
lying  between  the  cellular  tissue  and  the  muscles  of  the  neck. 
The  lamb  thus  affected  is  generally  small  and  lean,  or  if  it 
is  large  and  plump  it  has  a  soft,  jelly-like  feeling,  as  if  its 
muscular  tissues  were  imperfectly  developed.  In  either  case, 
the  bones  are  unnaturally  small.  It  is  excessively  weak  — 
the  plump,  soft  ones  being  often  unable  to  stand,  and  usually 
dying  soon  after  birth.  The  others  perhaps  linger  a  little 
longer  —  sometimes  several  days  —  but  they  perish  on  the 
least  exposure.  So  far  as  my  observations  have  extended  this 
condition  always,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent,  accompanies 
the  glandular  enlargement  under  consideration ;  but  it  also 
appears  without  it,  and,  as  I  shall  presently  show,  sometimes 
to  a  highly  destructive  extent. 

Having  early  adopted  the  view  that  the  preservation  of 
the  life  of  a  lamb,  which  is  incapable  of  attaining  that  full 
structural  development  on  which  the  vigor  of  the  constitution 
depends,  is  a  loss  instead  of  a  gain  —  and  being  specially 
averse  to  tolerating  in  a  breeding  flock  any  animal  even 
suspected  of  being  capable  of  carrying  along  and  transmitting 
a  hereditary  disease  —  I  never  have  applied  any  remedy 
whatever  for  "  swelled  neck."  I  have  seen  very  little  of  it 
for  the  last  few  years;  but  events  in  1862,  presently  to  be 
mentioned,  have  surrounded  the  subject  with  new  interest, 


CONGENITAL  GOITRE.  153 

and  I  now  regret  that  I  have  not  experimented  more  fully  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  precise  nature  of  the  malady. 

I  have  learned  some  new  facts  in  relation  to  it.  Two  or 
three  lambs  which  I  saw,  in  1862,  decidedly  affected  by  it, 
but  not  as  weak  or  as  attenuated  in  the  bony  structures  as 
usual,  very  rapidly  threw  off  all  appearance  of  the  goitrous 
enlargement  of  the  glands ;  and  they  thenceforth  grew  about 
as  rapidly  and  appeared  about  as  strong  as  ordinary  lambs. 
I  saw  another  such  case  in  1863.  I  made  no  memorandum  of 
the  facts  at  the  time,  but  my  impression  is  that  in  all  these 
instances  the  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  glands  disappeared 
within  the  space  of  as  short  a  period  as  a  fortnight.  An 
intelligent  friend  informed  me  that  having  some  goitrous 
lambs  in  his  flock,  last  spring,  he  placed  a  bandage  round  the 
neck  of  each  over  the  thyroid  glands,  and  wet  it  a  few  times 
a  day  with  camphor  (dissolved  in  alcohol.)  The  swelling,  he 
thinks,  disappeared  in  less  time  than  a  fortnight.  Mr.  Daniel 
Kelly,  Jr.,  of  Wheaton,  Illinois,  who  is  represented  to  be  a 
highly  successful  flock-master,  states  in  an  article  in  the  Rural 
New-Yorker,  that  the  disease  is  frequent  among  his  lambs; 
that  he  binds  a  woolen  cloth  about  their  necks  and  keeps  it 
wet  "  with  spirits  of  camphor  or  the  tincture  of  iodine "  — 
that  "  there  is  little,  if  any,  difference  in  the  effectiveness  of 
these  tinctures"  —  that. either  "is  sure  to  cure  them."* 

These  facts  would  seem  to  add  to  the  number  of  anomalous 
features  of  the  malady,  when  they  are  compared  with  those 
which  appear  in  the  human  subject  of  goitre,  if  indeed  it  is 
the  same  malady  ;f  and  they  suggest  some  doubts  of  the  latter 
fact.  But  fortunately  no  question  affecting  the  practical 
treatment  of  the  disease  is  to  be  settled  by  the  determination 
of  that  identity.  It  would  now  seem  that  mere  evaporants 
and  external  stimulants  rapidly  control  it.  Should  the  fact 
be  found  otherwise,  in  the  case  of  a  lamb  worth  saving,  the 
application  of  iodine  would  undoubtedly  remove  the  glandular 

*  I  should  rather  say  the  article  is  published  under  the  head  of  Western  Editorial 
Notes.  Mr.  C.  D.  Bragdon  giving  the  statements  as  he  received  them  from  Mr.  Kelly. 

t  I  was  the  first  public  writer,  so  far  as  I  know,  who  classified  the  "  swelled 
neck  "  of  lambs  as  goitre  or  bronchocele,  (in  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,) — 
though  conscious  then  that  some  of  its  conditions  were  very  different  from  those 
generally  exhibited  in  the  human  subject  of  that  disease.  These  exceptional  condi- 
tions were :— 1.  That  it  was  so  often  congenital ;  2.  That  it  so  frequently  affected  the 
progeny  of  parents  that  were  not  themselves  subjects  of  the  disease  or  known  ever 
to  have  been  subjects  of  it ;  and  3.  That  it  should  so  often  affect  young  animals, 
and  so  comparatively  rarely  affect  grown  ones.  The  additional  anomalies  disclosed 
by  the  facts  stated  in  the  text  (if  they  are  facts,)  are  the  following : — 4.  The  very  sudden 
and  spontaneous  disappearance  of  the  supposed  goitrous  enlargement.  5.  Its  sudden 
disappearance  on  the  application  of  camphor,  and  the  apparent  equal  power  possessed 
by  camphor  and  iodine  to  cause  its  absorption. 

7* 


]54  IMPERFECTLY  DEVELOPED  LAMBS. 

enlargement.  It  might  be  applied  to  the  parts  with  a  little 
less  trouble  in  the  form  of  an  ointment,  composed  of  one  part 
by  weight  of  hydriodate  of  potash  to  seven  parts  of  lard. 

IMPEBFECTLY  DEVELOPED  LAMBS. — Aside  from  abortions 
and  premature  births,  lambs  are  sometimes  yeaned  of  the 
feeble  and  imperfect  class  described  under  the  preceding 
head,  but  apparently  exhibiting  no  specific  form  of  disease. 
The  plump,  soft  ones,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  others,  are 
frequently  so  colorless  about  the  nose,  eyes  and  the  skin 
generally,  that  they  have  the  appearance  of  being  nearly 
destitute  of  blood.  The  small  ones  are  often  almost  destitute 
of  the  ordinary  wooly  coating.  This,  with  their  diminutive 
size,  the  smallness  of  their  bones,  the  remarkable  delicacy  of 
their  tissues,  their  general  appearance  of  fragility,  and  their 
feeble,  languid  movements,  gives  them  so  much  resemblance 
to  prematurely  born  lambs,  that  the  observer  finds  it  difficult 
to  believe  they  are  not  so,  until  dates  and  other  circumstances 
are  investigated. 

Far  more  of  these  imperfect  lambs  were  produced  in  1862 
than  in  any  other  year  within  my  recollection.  Some  counties 
in  New  York  lost  twenty-five  and  others  probably  thirty-three 
per  cent,  of  their  entire  number,  and  the  mortality  is  said  to 
have  extended  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  further  west.  I 
saw  large  numbers  of  these  imperfect  and  perishing  lambs. 
A  few,  in  some  of  the  flocks,  were  affected  by  goitre,  but  in 
others  there  was  not  an  instance  of  it;  and  taking  all  I 
saw  together,  not  five  per  cent,  of  them  were  affected  by  that, 
or,  so  far  as  I  could  discover,  any  other  specific  disease. 

Any  mode  of  treating  lambs  which  are  in  the  condition  I 
have  described,  so  that  they  will,  in  more  than  an  occasional 
instance,  ultimately  attain  the  average  size  and  the  average 
integrity  of  structures  and  functions  possessed  by  good  sheep, 
is,  according  to  my  experience,  wholly  out  of  the  question ; 
and  the  bestowal  of  excessive  care  merely  to  preserve  the  life 
of  an  animal  essentially  lacking  in  the  above  particulars,  is,  as 
remarked  under  the  preceding  head,  labor  thrown  away : 
indeed,  it  is  much  worse  than  thrown  away  if  the  animal  is 
suffered  to  remain  in  a  breeding  flock.  No  good  sheep 
breeder  would  permit  this.  And  even  if  the  subsequent 
structural  development  appeared  to  become  about  as  complete 
as  usual,  I  confess  I  should  still  feel  decidedly  averse  to 
breeding  from  such  an  animal.  In  the  case  of  a  ram,  I  should 
regard  it  as  inexcusable.  We  cannot  too  jealously  guard  our 


RHEUMATISM.  155 

flocks  from  the  remotest  predispositions  to  hereditary  defect, 
especially  in  the  cardinal  point  of  constitution.  I  fully  concur 
in  this  particular  with  Mr.  George  "W.  Kendall,  of  Texas, 
who,  on  ordering  some  rams  of  me  for  the  use  of  his  flock, 
sent  the  following  "particular  description"  of  the  points 
which  he  wished  to  have  regarded  in  their  selection :  he  said 
they  must  have,  "1st,  constitution;  2d,  constitution;  3d, 
constitution."  And  a  congenital  defect  of  any  kind,  whether 
ostensibly  removed  or  unremoved,  should  be  a  subject  of 
peculiar  apprehension,  from  the  stronger  probability  which 
exists  of  its  being  hereditary.  Acting  under  these  views, 
my  directions  in  regard  to  my  own  flocks  have  always  been 
to  give  all  lambs  of  the  class  under  consideration  merely  good 
care,  and  if  that  prove  insufficient,  to  let  them  die.  If  they 
live  until  fall,  they  are  sold  for  any  trifle  they  will  fetch  as 
avowedly  imperfect  lambs,  or  are  given  away. 

The  causes  which  lead  to  the  production  of  these 
imperfectly  developed  lambs  will  receive  some  attention 
when  I  treat  of  the  whiter  management  of  breeding  ewes. 

RHEUMATISM. —  Lambs  on  being  first  turned  out  of  warm, 
dry,  and  well-littered  yards  and  stables  into  the  pastures 
where  they  lie  on  the  damp  ground,  and  where  they  are  for 
the  first  time  exposed  to  cold  rains  and  chilly  winds,  some- 
times exhibit  symptoms  which,  with  the  present  limited 
information  which  I  possess  on  the  subject,  I  can  only  classify 
as  rheumatism.  The  lamb  suddenly  becomes  unable  to  walk 
except  with  difficulty.  It  is  lame  in  the  loins,  and  the  hind 
quarters  are  nearly  powerless ;  or  it  partly  loses  the  use  of  all 
the  legs,  without  the  back  appearing  to  be  particularly 
affected;  the  legs,  either  from  pain  or  weakness,  are  unable 
to  support  the  weight  of  the  body ;  the  lamb  hobbles  about, 
and  occasionally  becomes  wholly  unable  to  walk.  The  neck 
sometimes  becomes  stiff,  is  firmly  drawn  down,  and  is 
perhaps  drawn  to  one  side.  *  Usually  there  is  not  much 
appearance  of  constitutional  disease.  The  lamb  seems  to  be 
bright  and  feeds  well.  But  in  some  cases,  a  hollowness  and 
heaving  at  the  flank  indicate  a  degree  of  fever.  Those  unable 
to  rise,  and  those  whose  necks  are  so  drawn  down  that  they 
cannot  reach  the  teat,  would  soon  perish  without  assistance ; 
but  in  no  other  way  do  any  of  the  forms  of  the  disease,  as 
a  general  thing,  very  strongly  tend  to  fatal  results. 

*  I  was  not  at  first  disposed  to  consider  this  the  result  of  the  same  disease— but  I 
now  have  very  little  doubt  of  this  fact. 


156  TREATMENT    OF    EWES   AFTER    LAMBING. 

So  far  as  my  information  extends,  this  malady  is  new, 
infrequent,  and  in  any  other  form  than  "  stiff  neck "  is  yet 
limited  to  comparatively  few  localities  in  our  country. 
Warmth,  dryness,  non-exposure  to  the  damp  ground,  etc., 
and  the  careful  feeding  (from  the  teats  of  their  dams)  of  those 
unable  to  suck,  are  conditions  necessary  to  recovery ;  and  as 
the  weather  becomes  warm  and  settled  it  generally  disappears 
without  other  remedies.  In  a  few  cases,  however,  it  has 
proved  quite  destructive.  Mr.  Luther  Baker,  of  Lafayette, 
New  York,  had  a  very  valuable  flock  of  Merino  ewes,  about 
20  per  cent,  of  the  lambs  of  which  died  one  year,  and  50  per 
cent,  another,  of  this  malady  —  though  his  sheep  were  very 
carefully  and  judiciously  managed.  This  is  by  far  the  severest 
mortality  which  has  come  to  my  knowledge.  Mr.  Baker  then 
put  his  ewes  to  ram  so  the  lambs  would  not  come  until  the 
flock  began  to  be  turned  to  grass,  and  the  malady  almost 
entirely  disappeared.  The  present  year  (1863)  he  had  but 
two  or  three  cases,  and  these  were  promptly  cured  by 
administering  three  spoonfuls  of  lard  and  one  spoonful  of 
turpentine,  once  or  twice,  as  required,  to  each  lamb.  Some 
of  Mr.  Baker's  neighbors  who  had  one  or  two  diseased  lambs 
apiece,  made  use  of  the  same  remedy  with  equal  success. 
The  dose  above  mentioned  may  prove  rather  large  for  a  very 
young  lamb.  Its  constituents  render  it  an  appropriate  internal 
remedy  for  rheumatism.  The  cathartic,  and  the  stimulating 
and  diuretic  properties  of  the  turpentine,  are  called  for.  Mr. 
Spooner  recommends  (for  a  grown  sheep)  two  ounces  epsom 
salts,  one  drachm  of  ginger  and  half  an  ounce  of  spirit  of 
nitrous  ether  —  rubbing  the  affected  parts  with  stimulants, 
like  hartshorn  or  opodeldoc;  and  he  says  if  the  disease 
assumes  a  chronic  form,  a  seaton  should  be  inserted  near  the 
part.  Rheumatism  in  grown  sheep,  or  chronic  rheumatism  in 
lambs,  appears  to  be  yet  unknown  in  the  United  States. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  EWE  AFTER  LAMBING. —  Every  sound 
principle  of  physiology  goes  to  show  that  the  ewe,  like  every 
other  domestic  animal,  and  like  the  female  human  being, 
should  be  suffered  to  remain  as  quiet  as  possible  for  some 
time  after  parturition.  To  drive  her  for  any  considerable 
distance  immediately  after  her  lamb  drops,  when  exhausted 
with  her  labors,  and  when  her  womb  remains  fully  distended, 
is  cruel  and  injurious;  "hounding"  her  with  a  shepherd's 
dog,  in  that  situation,  as  is  sometimes  done  in  driving,  because 
she  lingers  behind  the  flock,  is  to  the  last  degree  brutal. 


CLOSED   TEATS — UNEASINESS  —  INFLAMED   UDDER.        157 

As  already  said,  there  should  be  no  hasty  interference 
with  a  new-bom  lamb,  if  it  appears  to  be  doing  well.  But  if, 
on  making  the  usual  effort,  it  fails  to  obtain  a  supply  of  milk, 
the  ewe  should  at  once  be  examined.  The  natural  flow  of 
milk  does  not  always,  particularly  in  young  ewes,  commence 
immediately  after  lambing,  though  in  a  few  hours  it  may  be 
abundant.  In  this  case  the  lamb  should  be  fed,  in  the  mean- 
time, artificially.  If  from  the  smallness  of  the  udder  or  other 
indications,  there  is  a  prospect  that  the  supply  of  milk  will  be 
permanently  small,  the  ewe  should  be  separated  from  the 
flock  and  nursed  with  better  feed,  as  mentioned  in  preceding 
Chapter.  Some  careful  flock-masters  separate  from  the  flock 
all  the  two-year-old  breeding  ewes,  and  all  the  old  and  weak 
ones,  either  a  few  days  before,  or  immediately  after  lambing, 
and  give  them  feed  especially  intended  to  promote  the 
secretion  of  milk. 

CLOSED  TEATS.  —  Sometimes  when  a  ewe  has  a  full 
udder  of  milk  the  opening  of  the  teats  are  so  firmly  closed 
that  the  lamb  can  not  force  them  open.  The  pressure  of  the 
human  fingers,  lubricated  with  spittle  to  prevent  chafing  or 
straining  the  skin,  will  readily  remove  the  difficulty.  If  the 
teat  has  been  cut  off  by  the  shearer  and  has  healed  up  so  as  to 
leave  no  opening,  it  should  be  re-opened  with  a  needle,  and 
this  followed  by  inserting  a  small,  smooth,  round-ended  wire, 
heated  sufficiently  to  cauterize  the  parts  very  moderately. 
Neither  of  these  should  enter  the  teat  but  a  little  way  — 
barely  sufficient  to  permit  the  milk  to  flow  out.  The  sucking 
of  the  lamb  will  generally  keep  the  orifice  open  —  but  it  may 
require  a  little  looking  to  and  the  application  of  something 
calculated  to  allay  inflammation. 

UNEASINESS. —  A  young  ewe,  owing  partly,  perhaps,  to 
the  novelty  of  her  situation,  and  partly  sometimes  either  to 
her  excessive  fondness  for,  or  indifference  toward  her  lamb, 
will  not  stand  for  it  to  suck.  As  soon  as  it  makes  the 
attempt,  she  will  turn  about  to  caress  it,  or  will  step  a  little 
away.  In  cold  weather,  she  may  thus  interpose  a  dangerous 
delay  to  its  feeding.  If  she  is  caught  and  held  by  the  neck 
until  the  udder  is  once  well  drawn  out,  she  will  generally 
require  no  further  attention. 

^  INFLAMED  UDDER. —  But  a  ewe  that  refuses  thus  to  stand 
will  sometimes  be  found  to  have  a  hot,  hard,   inflamed  or 


158  DRYING   OFF  —  DISOWNING    LAMBS. 

"caked"  udder  —  particularly  if  she  is  in  high  condition,  and 
lambs  late  in  the  season.  In  this  case,  the  udder  should  be 
fomented  frequently  for  some  time  with  hot  water  containing 
•a  slight  infusion  of  opium,  obtained  from  the  crude  article, 
from  laudanum  or  from  steeped  poppy  leaves.  The  oftener 
the  fomentation  is  repeated  the  sooner  the  inflammation  will 
subside  and  the  proper  flow  of  milk  ensue.  Repeated 
washings  with  cold  water  will  produce  the  same  effect,  but 
less  rapidly,  and  I  think  with  a  less  favorable  influence  on  the 
subsequent  secretions  of  milk.  If  a  ewe  has  lost  her  lamb,  and 
from  neglect  the  udder  has  become  swollen  and  indurations 
have  formed  in  it,  the  iodine  ointment  is  one  of  the  best 
applications.  (For  further  particulars,  see  Garget,  among 
Diseases  of  Sheep.) 

DRYING  OFF. —  If  a  grown  ewe  having  a  full  udder  of 
milk  loses  her  lamb,  she  should  receive  a  foster  lamb,  or  be 
reserved  to  give  temporary  supplies  of  milk  to  the  new-born 
lambs  requiring  it.  But  if  it  becomes  necessary  to  dry  off  a 
ewe,  even  a  young  one  not  having  much  milk,  she  should,  if 
convenient,  be  fed  on  dry  feed,  and  care  taken  to  milk  out 
the  udder  as  often  as  once  a  day  for  several  days,  and  a  few 
times  afterwards,  as  may  appear  necessary,  at  intervals  of 
increasing  length.  The  daily  application  of  an  evaporant  — 
say  water  with  15  grains  of  sugar  of  lead  dissolved  in  a  pint 
—  would  facilitate  the  process.  I  am  satisfied  that  many  of 
the  troubles  shepherds  experience  in  raising  lambs  are 
produced  or  greatly  increased  by  the  very  careless  manner 
in  which  ewes  are  habitually  dried  off. 

DISOWNING  LAMBS. — Ewes,  and  especially  young  or  very 
poor  ones,  or  those  which  have  been  prostrated  by  difficult 
parturition,  occasionally  refuse  to  own  their  lambs  or  are 
exceedingly  neglectful  of  them.  When,  notwithstanding,  it 
is  advisable  to  compel  the  ewe  to  raise  her  lamb,  both  should 
immediately  be  separated  from  the  flock  and  placed  in  a  small, 
dark  inclosure  together,  and  if  convenient  out  of  hearing  of 
other  sheep — care  being  taken  to  hold  the  ewe,  at  first,  as  often 
as  five  or  six  times  a  day  for  the  lamb  to  suck.  As  soon  as 
she  takes  to  it,  she  may  be  let  out;  but  for  a  few  days  she 
should  be  let  out  only  with  her  lamb,  and  be  closely  watched, 
for  when  she  mixes  with  other  sheep  as  soon  as  she  regains 
her  liberty,  her  indifference  sometimes  returns.  It  is  very 


PENS — FOSTER   LAMBS.  159 

convenient  to  attach  some  peculiar  paint  mark  both  to  the 
ewe  and  lamb,  so  that  they  can  be  readily  recognized.  If  a 
ewe  is  obstinate  about  accepting  her  lamb,  frightening  her 
sometimes  aids  to  arouse  her  maternal  instincts.  Some 
shepherds  show  her  a  strange  dog,  a  child  wearing  a  bright 
colored  mantle,  or  the  like.  I  never  chanced  to  suffer 
inconvenience  by  it,  but  I  am  informed  by  good  shepherds 
that  on  driving  flocks  of  ewes  with  new-born  lambs,  when  they 
are  wet,  into  a  crowded  barn,  and  keeping  them  there  for 
s  ome  time,  it  produces  great  confusion  in  the  recognition  of 
lambs,  particularly  by  the  young  ewes:  and  my  informants 
attributed  this  to  the  lambs  rubbing  together,  and  thus 
blending  or  disguising  those  odors  by  which  each  ewe  is 
supposed  alone  to  distinguish  her  own  lamb,  until  she 
becomes  accustomed  to  recognize  it  by  sight  and  by  its  voice. 
If  a  ewe  exhibits  the  least  indifference  to  her  lamb  when  it  is 
firstborn — or  if  it  is  quite  weak,  or  in  a  crowded  stable, 
or  requires  help  of  any  kind,  a  pen  should  be  immediately 
brought  and  placed  around  them. 

PENS. —  Every  breeding  barn  should  be  provided  with 
a  dozen  or  two  of  pens,  ready  made,  and  hung  up  on  pegs 
overhead.  They  should  be  about  three  by  three  and  a  half,  or 
three  and  a  half  by  four  feet  in  dimensions,  very  light  but 
strong ;  and  in  field  lambing,  canvas  covers  on  top  and 
one  canvas  side  cover  to  a  few  of  them  would  be  highly 
convenient  to  keep  off  rain  and  cold  winds. 

FOSTER  LAMBS. —  If  a  ewe  having  a  good  udder  of  milk 
loses  her  lamb,  and  a  young  or  feeble  ewe  disowns  hers,  or 
is  unable  to  raise  it  properly,  the  lamb  of  the  latter  should 
be  transferred  to  the  former.  This  can  usually  be  readily 
effected.  If  the  skin  of  the  foster  dam's  lamb  can  be  taken 
off  soon  after  death,  and  fastened  on  the  lamb  she  is  required 
to  adopt,  she  will  generally  take  to  it  at  once  or  after  only  a 
moment's  hesitation.  Neither  the  head,  legs  nor  tail  of  the 
skin  need  to*  be  retained.  It  should  be  fastened  by  strings 
(sewed  through  the  edges  of  it,)  tied  under  the  neck  and 
body  —  the  labor  of  a  moment  —  and  that  is  all  that  is 
required.  Those  persons,  already  mentioned,  who  transfer 
all  the  lambs  of  their  two-year  old  ewes  to  foster  dams,  in 
some  instances  put  good-milking  coarse  ewes  to  ram  at  the 
same  time  with  their  young  ewes,  or  a  trifle  later.  These  are 


160  DOCKING   LAMBS. 

watched  and  when  one  yeans,  her  lamb  is  immediately  taken 
away,  if  practicable,  before  she  sees  it.  The  foster  lamb  is 
rubbed  about  in  "  the  waters,"  (amniotic  fluid,)  blood,  etc., 
which  accompanies  the  "cleanings,"  (placenta,)  and  then  is 
left  with  her  in  a  pen.  She  generally  does  not  suspect  the 
substitution,  or  if  she  does,  after  a  short  delay  the  adoption 
on  both  sides  becomes  complete.  When  neither  of  the  above 
modes  is  available,  the  ewe  required  to  adopt  a  lamb  is 
treated  like  one  which  disowns  her  own.  Some  take  to  them 
pretty  readily ;  others  exhibit  great  obstinacy.  If  the  ewe  is 
confined  long  in  a  pen,  she  should  be  given  feed  calculated  to 
produce  milk,  or  should,  after  a  little,  be  let  out  daily  in  a 
small,  green  paddock  alone  with  the  lamb. 

'  DOCKING  LAMBS. —  This  is  most  safely  performed  when  the 
lamb  is  not  over  two  or  three  weeks  old.  Some  experienced 
shepherds  do  it  well,  on  simply  having  the  lamb  lifted  by  an 
attendant  and  its  breech  held  toward  them  —  the  lamb  being 
held  with  its  back  uppermost  and  in  about  the  same  position 
as  if  it  was  standing  on  the  ground.  The  shepherd  seizes  the 
tail  with  one  hand,  places  the  knife  under  and  cuts  up  and 
toward  himself,  with  a  swift,  firm  motion.  But  an  inexpe- 
rienced person  attempting  this,  will  cut  the  tails  of  different 
lengths,  cut,  off  some  of  them  obliquely,  and  will  occasionally 
leave  the  bone  projecting  half  an  inch  outside  of  the  skin,  to 
heal  over  slowly  and  cause  a  vast  deal  of  unnecessary  pain. 
This  last  is  sure  to  occur  in  a  good  share  of  cases  if  an 
unfeeling  booby  performs  the  operation,  without  an  attendant, 
holding  the  lamb  by  the  tail  as  it  stands  on  the  ground  pulling 
with  all  its  might  to  escape.*  A  flock  of  choice  sheep  owe 
too  much  to  the  neat  and  uniform  appearance  of  their  tails  — 
especially  among  the  Merinos,  where  it  has  become  a  "fancy 
point " —  not  to  have  the  process  well  performed.  The  safest 
mode  is  to  have  an  attendant  hold  the  lamb,  upright  but 
leaning  back,  with  its  rump  resting  on  a  block,  and  the  hind- 
legs  drawn  up  out  of  the  way.  The  shepherd  with  his  right 
hand  fore-finger  and  thumb  slides  the  skin  of  the  tail  toward 
the  body,  places  a  two  or  three  inch  chisel  across  the  tail, 
with  his  left  hand  —  pressing  it  down  enough  to  keep  the 
skin  slidden  toward  the  body;  and  taking  a  mallet  in  the  right 
hand  he  severs  the  tail  at  a  blow.  The  tail  of  the  Merino 
should  be  left  barely  long  enough  to  cover  the  anus  and 

*  I  knew  a  brutal  fellow  who,  cutting  thus,  with  all  his  strength,  severed  not 
only  the  tail  but  one  of  the  hind-legs  of  a  lamb. 


CASTKATION.  161 

vagina.    The  breeders  of  English  sheep  usually  leave  it  three 
or  four  inches  long. 

Docking  is  best  performed  in  cool,  dry  weather,  and  the 
lambs  should  not  be  previously  heated  by  chasing  or  even 
driving  them  fast.  The  flock  should  be  driven  into  a  stable, 
the  lambs  caught  out,  one  by  one,  and  as  they  are  docked 
placed  in  another  apartment.  The  tails  of  the  rams  should  be 
thrown  into  one  pile  and  those  of  the  ewes  into  another,  so 
that  when  the  docking  is  done,  a  count  of  each  pile  will  give 
the  number  of  each  sex ;  and  this  should  then  and  there  be 
recorded  in  the  "Sheep  Book"  of  the  farm.  It  is  well,  also, 
to  mark  those  of  one  sex  with  a  brand,  or  a  dot  made  by  the 
end  of  a  cob  dipped  in  paint,  to  facilitate  later  separations. 
Sometimes,  though  very  rarely,  a  lamb  bleeds  to  death  from 
docking.  This  generally  can  be  stopped  by  a  tightly  drawn 
ligature.  If  this  fails,  resort  should  at  once  be  had  to  actual 
cautery  — the  red  -  hot  iron.  If  lambs  are  docked  after  the 
weather  becomes  quite  hot,  it  is  advisable  to  apply  a  mixture  of 
tar,  butter  and  turpentine  to  the  parts.  I  this  year  saw  eighty 
lambs,  docked  on  the  7th  of  July,  with  their  tails  swollen  and 
covered  with  small  maggots,  for  the  want  of  some  such 
application  to  keep  away  the  fly.  The  scrotums  of  the 
castrated  ones  were  also  filled  with  maggots.  Docking  is 
necessary  to  guard  against  filthiness.  Maggots,  too,  are 
liable  to  be  produced  under  that  filth,  and  to  cause  the 
death  of  the  animal.  And,  finally,  habit  has  rendered  a  long 
tail  an  unsightly  appendage  to  the  sheep. 

CASTRATION  —  Is  usually  performed  at  the  same  time  with 
docking  —  but  it  is  rather  severe  on  the  young  lamb  to  do 
both  at  the  same  time.  Some,  therefore,  put  off  castration  a 
few  days  later.  It  should  be  performed  with  still  more  care 
in  regard  to  the  weather,  heating  the  lamb  in  advance,  etc. 
An  attendant  holds  the  lamb  (with  a  fore  and  hind-leg  grasped 
in  each  hand,)  in  an  upright  position,  with  its  back  placed 
against  his  own  body.  He  draws  the  hind-legs  up  and  apart, 
and  presses  Against  the  lamb's  body  with  sufficient  force  to 
cause  the  lower  part  of  the  belly  to  protrude  between  the 
thighs  and  the  scrotum  to  be  well  exposed.  The  operator 
then  cuts  off  about  one-third  of  the  scrotum ;  takes  each  testicle 
in  turn  between  the  thumb  and  fore-finger,  and  after  sliding 
down  the  loose  enveloping  membrane  to  the  spermatic  chord, 
pulls  out  the  testicle  with  a  moderately  quick  but  not  violently 
jerking  motion.  The  connecting  tissues  (of  the  spermatic 


162  CASTBATION. 

cord)  snap  with  very  little  bleeding.*  If  they  snap  so  that 
a  portion  of  the  nerve  adhering  to  the  body  remains  exposed, 
it  should  be  cut  off.  Tar,  butter  and  turpentine  should  be 
applied  to  the  parts. 

*  Some  foreign  shepherds  have  various  absurd  processes  of  severing  the  last 
attachments,  before  the  entire  spermatic  cord  snaps  asunder.  Some  chew  them  off — 
others  cut  them  off  by  rubbing  the  thumb  nail  across  them.  Mr.  Spooner  recom- 
mends, even  in  the  case  of  a  youn.gr  lamb,  to  put  iron  clams  on  the  spermatic  cords 
and  to  divide  them  with  a  hot  iron. 

I  have  given  the  process,  in  the  text,  as  it  is  generally  performed,  and  as  it  is 
always  performed  among  my  own  sheep.  But  there  is  no  denying  that  pulling  out 
the  testicle  in  this  way  often  draws  out  the  spermatic  nerves  (plexus  testiculareg)  so 
that  they  do  not  snap  within  three  or  even  four  inches  of  the  testicles.  The  remain- 


ing part,  of  course,  retracts  within  the  abdominal  ring,  which  must  certainly  be 
injurious,  and  might,  with  an  animal  less  capable  of  enduring  all  sorts  of  mistreat- 
ment, have  serious  consequences.  I  have  tolerated  the  practice  because  thus  tearing 


the  spermatic  cord  asunder,  prevents  bleeding ;  and  the  hot  iron,  etc.,  are  inconven- 
ient. Pulling  out  the  testicle  far  enough  and  severing  it  with  a  hot  iron  (without 
using  the  clams)  might  also  sufficiently  prevent  bleeding. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

SUMMER  MANAGEMENT, 

• 

MODE    OF    WASHING    SHEEP  —  UTILITY     OP    WASHING    CONSID- 
ERED  CUTTING    THE     HOOFS TIME    BETWEEN    WASHING 

AND      SHEARING SHEARING STUBBLE      SHEARING       AND 

TRIMMING SHEARING   LAMBS   AND    SHEARING   SHEEP    SEMI- 

ANNUALLY DOING     UP     WOOL — FRAUDS     IN     DOING     UP 

WOOL STORING     WOOL PLACE     FOR     SELLING     WOOL 

WOOL    DEPOTS    AND    COMMISSION    STORES SACKING   WOOL. 

MODES  OF  WASHING  SHEEP. — Sheep  are  now  washed, 
in  the  Northern  States,  somewhat  earlier  than  formerly  — 
usually  between  the  first  and  fifteenth  of  June  —  as  early 
as  the  warmth  of  the  streams  will  admit.  When  it  used 
to  be  considered  an  object  to  sell  clean  wool,  it  was  the 
common  practice  to  wash  fine-wooled  sheep  under  the  fall  of 
a  mill-dam  ;  or  to  make  an  artificial  fall  by  damming  up  a 
small  stream,  conducting  its  water  a  few  feet  in  a  race,  and 
having  it  fall  thence  a  couple  of  feet  into  a  tub  or  washing  vat. 
The  vat  was  a  strong  box,  large  enough  to  hold  four  sheep 
at  a  time.  It  was  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  deep, 
about  two  and  a  half  feet  of  it  rising  above  the  surrounding 
platform  for  the  washers,  and  the  remaining  portion  being 
sunk  in  the  ground.  The  sheep  were  penned  close  at  hand, 
and  the  lambs  immediately  taken  out  to  prevent  their 
being  trampled  under  foot.  Two  washers  generally  worked 
together,  and  a  catcher  brought  the  sheep  to  them.  If  the 
sheep  were  dry,  four  were  usually  placed  in  the  vat  together, 
so  that  two  were  soaking  while  two  were  being  washed. 
Every  part  of  each  fleece  was  exposed  for  a  short  time  to  the 
full  force  of  the  descending  current.  The  dirtier  parts,  the 
breech,  belly  and  neck,  were  thoroughly  squeezed,  (by 
pressing  the  wool  together  in  masses  between  the  palms  of 
the  hands,)  and  these  operations  continued  until  the  water 
ran  entirely  clear  from  the  fleece.  The  animal  was  then 


164  WASHING   SHEEP   CONSIDERED. 

grasped  by  the  fore  parts,  plunged  down  deep  into  the  Avater 
and  the  re-bound  taken  advantage  of  to  lift  it  over  the  edges 
of  the  vat  without  touching  them.  It  was  set  carefully  on  its 
feet,  and,  if  old  or  weak,  a  portion  of  the  water  was  pressed 
from  the  fleece.  Washing  under  a  mill-dam  was  performed 
in  substantially  the  same  manner,  except  that  the  washers 
were  compelled  to  stand  in  the  water. 

These  modes  rendered  wool  quite  too  clean  for  the 
fashion  of  the  present  day.  The  reasons  for  the  change  have 
been  elsewhere  adverted  to.  The  object  now  is,  with  a  large 
proportion  of  the  growers,  to  see  how  little  they  can  wash 
their  wool  and  yet  have  it  sell  as  "  washed  wool."  It  would 
be  difficult,  if  indeed  desirable,  to  give  any  instructions  on 
this  head!  English  sheep  require  very  little  washing 
compared  with  the  Merino,  and  it  can  be  done  with  sufficient 
expedition  and  thoroughness  in  any  clear,  running  water  of 
proper  depth. 

UTILITY  OP  WASHING  CONSIDERED.  —  The  utility  of 
washing  sheep  before  shearing  is  now  the  subject  of  a  good 
deal  of  discussion.  One  class  of  producers  advocate  it  on 
the  ground  that  it  prevents  a  useless  transportation  of  dirt  to 
market,  that  it  improves  the  saleableness  of  wool,  and  that  it 
avoids  the  operation  of  an  unequal  rule  of  shrinkage  applied 
by  buyers  indiscriminately  to  all  unwashed  wools.  Another 
class  of 'producers  contend  that  it  is  injurious  to  the  health 
of  sheep ;  that  it  renders  shearing  impracticable  at  that  period 
which  best  tends  both  to  the  comfort  and  productiveness  of 
the  animal,  and  which  enables  the  producer  to  avail  himself 
of  the  early  wool  markets;  that  it  subjects  sheep  to  the 
danger  of  contracting  contagious  diseases ;  and,  finally,  that 
any  custom  of  buying,  or  conventional  rule  of  shrinkage, 
which  is  found  unfair  in  itself  or  opposed  to  public  utility, 
should  be  promptly  abandoned. 

The  objection  to  transporting  dirt  is  a  good  one,  unless  it 
secures  some  advantage  which  counterbalances  its  cost.  I 
am  satisfied  that  washing,  properly  conducted,  in  water  of 
suitable  temperature,  is  not  in  the  least  injurious  to  decently 
hardy  sheep  —  not  any  more  so  than  an  hour's  rain  any  time 
within  a  month  after  shearing  —  the  rain  being  of  the  same 
temperature  with  brook  water  when  fit  for  washing.  But  if 
it  can  be  shown  that  shearing  before  about  the  25th  of  June 
is  better  for  the  sheep,  or  gives  the  grower  a  better  chance 
to  sell,  there  is  a  weighty  and  perfectly  legitimate  reason 


WASHING   SHEEP   CONSIDEBED.  165 

against  washing  in  many  portions  of  the  Northern  States  — 
for  the  streams  are  not  warm  enough  usually  for  washing 
sheep  without  injury  until  about  the  second  week  of  June. 
This  is  true  among  the  high  lands  of  New  York*  and 
Northern  Pennsylvania,  and  certainly  ought  to  be  still  more 
so  in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  etc.,  where  the  snows  which 
feed  the  streams  lie  later  on  the  mountains. 

Highly  intelligent  and  candid  flock-masters  who  have  tried 
the  experiment,  (I  have  never  myself  done  so,)  assure  me  that 
Merino  sheep  sheared  a  month  before  the  usual  period  —  say 
from  20th  of  May  to  1st  of  June  —  get  sooner  into  condition 
if  they  are  lacking  in  that  particular ;  that  the  wool  obtains  a 
better  start  before  the  opening  of  hot  weather,  and  retains  it 
through  the  year ;  and  that  the  sheep  have  better  protection 
from  inclemencies  of  weather  during  those  periods  when  they 
most  require  it  —  that  is,  in  the  winter  —  and  still  more 
particularly  during  the  cold  storms  of  autumn.  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  two  first  of  these  propositions — and 
they  certainly  are  not  unreasonable  ones  —  the  last  is 
undeniably  true;  and  the  additional  autumn  protection 
alone  would  be  a  sufficient  reason  for  earlier  shearing,  in 
the  absence  of  any  special  reason  to  the  contrary.  The 
apprehension  of  contagious  diseases,  too,  from  using  the 
same  washing  yards,  from  temporarily  occupying  the  same 
fields  during  the  process,  and  even  from  driving  sheep 
over  the  same  roads,  is,  as  I  know  from  bitter  experience,  f 
perfectly  well  founded  ;  and  it  is  often  highly  inconvenient,  if 
not  altogether  impracticable,  for  the  farmer  to  wash  his  sheep 
without  using  the  same  washing  pens,  or  at  least  the  same 
roads,  with  the  public. 

And  what  sound  objection   can  the  buyer  have  to  the 

*  My  residence  is  less  than  1,200  feet  above  tide-water,  surrounded  by  no  lofty 
hills,  and  I  know  that  here  it  is  generally  difficult  to  find  the  water  as  warm  as  it 
might  to  be  to  wash  sheep,  before  about  the  time  specified  in  the  text. 

t  I  have  had  four  different  visitations  of  hoof-rot  in  my  flocks  —  all  clearly  and 
distinctly  traceable  to  contagion.  The  third  case  occurred  from  some  wethers 
affected  by  that  disease,  getting  once  among  a  flock  of  my  breeding  ewes.  The 
wethers  were  found  with  the  ewes  at  9  o'clock,  A.  M.,  and  were  not  with  them  at 
night-fall  the  preceding  day.  They  might  therefore  have  been  with  them  a  few  hours, 
or  only  a  few  moments.  In  the  fourth  case,  half  a  dozen  of  my  lambs  and  sheep 
jumped  into  the  road  when  a  lame  flock  was  passing,  and  remained  with  them  half  an 
hour.  Both  lots  of  animals  were  thus  exposed  when  I  was  not  aware  there  was  a 
sheep  having  hoof-rot  in  the  town  I  The  diseased  sheep  had  just  been  brought  in  by 
drovers,  and  the  farmer  who  took  them  to  pasture,  in  the  lot  adjoining  mine,  in  the 
third  case,  did  not  dream  of  their  being  thus  affected ;  and  they  had  mixed  with  mine 
before  I  knew  there  was  a  new  flock  in  the  neighborhood.  I  mention  these  facts  to 
show  how  readily  sheep  contract  the  disease,  and  how  idle  it  would  be  for  any  man 
to  lay  aside  all  fears  of  contagion  in  going  to  and  occupying  a  public  washing  pen — 
because  he  supposed  he  knew  there  were  no  diseased  flocks  in  his  neighborhood. 
There  could  be  no  better  place  for  contracting  hoof-rot  or  scab,  than  a  washing-pen. 


166  WASHING    SHEEP   CONSIDERED. 

farmer's  shearing  his  sheep  a  month  earlier  and  unwashed,  if 
he  chooses  to  do  so,  even  if  we  should  admit,  for  the  sake  of 
argument,  that  all  the  reasons  assigned  for  it  have  no 
real  weight  ?  If  the  farmer  sends  dirt  to  market,  he,  not  the 
buyer,  pays  for  the  transportation.  "Washed  or  unwashed, 
the  wool  must  go  through  the  same  cleansing  process.  Am  I 
asked  if  the  buyer  has  not  the  right  to  judge  of  the  conditions 
in  which  he  shall  voluntarily  purchase  a  commodity  with  his 
own  money?  By  no  sound  principle,  either  of  morals  or 
commerce,  have  any  class  of  buyers  a  right  to  establish  rules 
of  purchasing,  not  necessary  to  protect  their  own  legitimate 
interests,  which  are  calculated  to  injure  the  legitimate 
interests  of  producers. 

The  rule  that  all  wools  shall  be  washed  or  subjected  to  a, 
deduction  of  one-third  to  put  them  on  a  par  with  brook- 
washed  wools,  operates  very  unequally.  A  large,  highly 
yolky  ram,  housed  in  the  summer,  will  have  at  least  two 
pounds,  and  a  ewe  one  pound,  more  yolk  in  its  fleece  than 
would  the  same  animal  if  unhoused  in  the  summer.  Should 
the  unwashed  wool  then  sell  at  the  same  rate  of  shrinkage  in 
both  cases?  If  we  were  to  admit  that  one-third  is  a  fair 
average^  rate  of  shrinkage  on  all  unwashed  wools,  is  there  any 
justice  in  making  the  producer  of  the  cleaner  ones  suifer  for 
the  benefit  of  the  person  who  chooses  to  grow  yolkier  wools, 
or  who  houses  his  sheep  in  summer  to  preserve  all  their 
yolk?  Does  the  manufacturer  wish  to  pay  a  premium  on  the 
production  and  preservation  of  yolk  in  the  wool  ? 

No  manufacturer  claims  that  the  present  rule  of  shrinkage 
operates  strictly  equitably  in  all  cases ;  but  some  manufacturers 
contend  that  a  discrimination  in  unwashed  Avools  would  be 
impracticable,  or  at  least  inconvenient,  and  that  if  the  present 
rule  injures  the  interest  of  the  producer,  all  he  has  to  do  is  to 
wash  his  wool.  It  would  be  difficult  for  any  one  to  show 
that  there  is  any  greater  practical  inconvenience  in  deciding 
between  the  different  amounts  of  yolk  in  unwashed  wool  than 
there  is  in  deciding  between  the  different  amounts  of  foul 
seed  in  wheat  and  other  varieties  of  grain,  of  useless  weeds 
in  hay,  or  even  of  yolk  in  washed  wool  /  yet  who  thinks  of 
buying  these  impure  commodities  at  a  fixed  rate  of  shrinkage  ? 
Still  less  excuse  is  there  for  preserving  an  arbitrary  and 
unequal  rule,  as  a  quasi  punishment  on  growers  who  only 
believe  themselves  consulting  their  own  legitimate  interests, 
and  who  certainly  are  not  invading  those  of  others. 

The    ground    directly    or    impliedly    assumed    by   some 


WASHING    SHEEP    CONSIDERED.  167 

growers,  that  a  reduction  of  the  present  rate  of  shrinkage  is 
all  that  is  now  called  for  —  leaving  it  as  fixed  in  its  rate  as 
at  present  —  must  be  a  pleasing  one  to  those  who  grow  and 
preserve  the  largest  amount  of  yolk,  for  this  would  increase 
the  present  premium  on  yolk  precisely  in  proportion  to  that 
reduction.  But  it  would  do  it  at  the  expense  either  of  the 
producer  of  cleaner  wools,  or  of  the  manufacturer.  Equally 
fallacious  and  interested  is  the  pretence  that  unwashed  wools 
come  nearer  to  a  uniform  standard  in  respect  to  cleanliness 
than  washed  ones,  and  therefore  that,  as  a  matter  of  right  or 
mutual  protection,  all  wool"  growers  ought  to  combine 
to  omit  washing  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  all  wools  on  the 
market  in  that  situation. 

The  only  sound  and  equitable  course  is  to  abolish  any  fixed 
rule  in  the  premises  —  to  buy  unwashed  wool  as  wheat,  other 
grain,  hay,  and  washed  wool  containing  impurities  are  now 
bought,  viz.,  subject  to  a  deduction  proportioned  to  the 
amount  of  impurity  in  each  particular  case  —  clean  wool 
being  made  the  standard.  It  is  as  easy  for  the  buyer  and 
seller  to  agree  on  the  amount  of  deduction  as  to  agree  on  the 
quality.  Indeed,  they  have  no  especial  occasion  to  agree  in 
terms  on  either ;  nor  do  they  now,  in  the  case  of  washed  wools 
of  different  qualities  and  degrees  of  cleanliness.  They  simply 
agree  or  disagree  on  price,  each  basing  his  estimates  on  such 
data  as  he  pleases.  The  moment  this  mode  of  purchasing  is 
adopted  and  put  fairly  into  operation,  its  propriety  will 
commend  it  to  all.  It  will  equally  promote  the  legitimate 
interests  of  both  buyer  and  seller.  But  one  leading  purchaser 
has  to  adopt  it  rapidly  to  procure  its  general  adoption  — 
because  those  who  bought  thus  would  secure  the  decided 
advantage  of  acting  without  competition  in  the  rapidly 
increasing  market  of  unwashed  wools,  while  they  still  could 
compete  on  equal  terms  in  the  market  of  washed  wools. 

Two  sets  of  persons  have  taken  what  I  esteem  to  be  very 
uncalled  for  positions  on  this  subject.  Those  who  assume 
that  manufacturers  should,  at  the  first  intimation  and  without 
understanding  the  reasons,  abandon  any  established  custom 
of  their  calling,  or  submit  to  the  imputation  of  laboring  to 
take  advantage  of  the  wool  producer,  and  of  "combining" 
to  secure  that  advantage,  assume  positions  which  are  equally 
unsupported  by  proof  and  at  war  with  good  sense.  The 
manufacturers  have  been  at  least  as  much  sinned  against 
as  sinning.  There  is  no  more  intelligent,  honorable,  public- 
spirited  and  liberal  class  of  business  men  in  our  country. 


168  CUTTING    THE    HOOFS. 

The  one-third  rule  of  shrinkage  was  adopted  by  them  at  an 
early  day,  when  but  very  little  domestic  wool  came  unwashed 
into  the  market.  It  was  brought  in  usually  by  owners  of  small 
lots,  who  took  no  care  of  their  sheep.  The  wool  was  not 
only  frequently  filled  with  wood-dirt,  sand  and  dung,  but  it 
was  also  frequently  out  of  condition  —  here  a  fleece  cotted, 
there  one  jointed,  and  anon  one  filled  with  burs.  It  was  not 
convenient  to  classify  these  with  good  washed  wools,  nor 
was  it  obligatory  on  anybody  to  encourage  their  continued 
production.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  one-third  rule  of 
shrinkage  met  the  case  fairly  enough. 

Very  few  persons  are  the  first  to  discover  that  their 
customs  have  survived  their  original  causes.  Even  sensible 
men  surrender  old  ones  with  reluctance,  and  are  quite  apt  to 
suspect  the  motives  of  proposed  innovators.  Weak  and 
prejudiced  men  mistake  them  for  principles  and  support  them 
with  bigotry  and  fury.  As  soon  as  the  manufacturers  become 
convinced  that  the  present  feeling  among  flock-masters  against 
the  washing  of  wool  springs  from  legitimate  motives,  and 
indicates  a  settled  purpose  instead  of  a  mere  freak,  they  will 
meet  it,  not  by  a  suspension  of  purchases  or  by  holding  on  to 
any  unequal  and  unjust  rules,  but  in  a  fair  and  business-like 
way.  But  if  the  grower  errs  in  denouncing  and  "passing 
resolutions"  against  the  manufacturer  who  does  not  at  once 
accede  to  his  precise  terms,  not  less  does  the  manufacturer 
err  in  assuming,  in  a  matter  where  his  own  real  interests  are 
not  at  stake,  to  dictate  modes  and  times  of  preparing  a 
commodity  for  market  to  the  producer  of  it ;  and  especially 
in  assuming  that  the  reasons  offered  by  the  latter  for  the 
change  under  consideration  are  either  false  or  frivolous. 

I  have  in  this  connection  spoken  only  of  the  manufacturers 
as  buyers,  though,  directly,  other  classes  of  buyers  are  equally 
concerned  in  the  question.  But  I  have  done  this  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  as  all  wools  go  ultimately  into  the  hands  of  the  former 
to  be  prepared  for  consumption,  their  action  in  the  premises 
would  be  the  controlling  one  among  all  classes  of  purchasers. 

CUTTING  THE  HOOFS. —  The  hoofs  of  the  improved  English 
mutton  breeds  usually  retain  nearly  their  natural  size  and 
form.  The  hoofs  of  the  Merino  often  continue  growing  to 
twice  their  natural  length,  and  their  horny  crusts  turn  up  in 
front  and  curl  under  at  the  sides.  There  is  some  difference 
between  individuals  in  this  particular,  and  considerable  is 
made  between  flocks,  by  the  nature  of  their  summer  pastures. 


CUTTING    THB   HOOFS.  169 

Moist,  low  grounds  encourage  the  growth  of  the  horn ;  and 
it  is  also  highly  increased  by  the  presence  of  hoof-rot.  But 
all  Merino  flocks  require  examination,  at  least  once  a  year,  in 
this  particular,  or  else  a  considerable  portion  of  the  sheep 
will  have  their  hoofs  grown  out  to  an  extent  which  is  highly 
unsightly,  which  gives  them  a  hobbling,  "groggy"  gait,  and 
which,  when  the  hoof  turns  under  at  the  sides,  confines 
between  it  and  the  sole  a  mass  of  mud  or  filth  which  remains 
there  constantly.  Occasionally,  the  hoof  turns  under  so  far 
that  these  impurities  are  also  kept  confined  between  the 
toes.  This  situation  of  things  greatly  increases  the  tendency 
to  fouls,  and  aggravates  hoof-rot  where  it  exists.  In  England 
it  would  probably  be  thought  to  originate  both. 

Where  no  disease  is  present,  and  the  hoofs  only  require 
their  usual  annual  shortening,  the  time  of  washing  is  often 
a  very  convenient  one  to  attend  to  it.  The  hoofs  are  then 
freed  from  dirt  and  softened  by  soaking.  When  the  sheep  is 
removed  from  the  washing-vat,  the  washer,  or  an  attendant, 
holds  it  sitting  on  its  rump  with  its  back  resting  against  his 
legs.  He  then,  with  a  thin-bladed,  strong,  sharp  knife,  cuts 
away  the  horn  underneath  the  foot  so  as  to  restore  it  to  a 
level  with  the  sole ;  and  some  of  the  sole  should  be  pared  off 
too,  if  it  has  become  unnaturally  thick.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  preserve  the  natural  bearing  of  the  foot— not  lowering  the 
heel  so  much  as  to  throw  the  weight  on  the  toes,  and  not 
lowering  the  latter  so  much  as  to  throw  it  on  the  heel.  An 
experienced,  firm,  swift  hand  will  perform  this  operation  on 
each  foot  by  one  or  two  rapid  strokes  with  the  knife.  The 
long  toes  are  then  to  be  cut  off  with  a  pair  of  nippers  made 

for  the  purpose.  As  these 
are  sometimes  necessarily 
used  when  the  hoofs  ai-e  dry 
and  tough,  they  should  be 
TOE-NIPFEBS.  made  very  strong,  with 

handles  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  long,  the  rivet  being  half 
an  inch  in  diameter  and  confined  with  a  nut,  so  they  can 
be  taken  apart  for  sharpening.  The  cutting  edge  should 
descend  upon  a  strip  of  copper  inserted  in  the  iron  to  prevent 
dulling.  With  this  instrument,  the  largest  hoofs  are  readily 
severed.  All  these  operations  should  be  performed  in  a  little 
more  time  than  it  takes  to  read  this  description  of  them —  or 
else  deferred  until  some  other  occasion,  because,  both  on 
account  of  the  washers  and  the  sheep,  the  washing  process 
is  one  which  ought  not  to  brook  much  delay. 


170  TIME    BETWEEN   WASHING   AND   SHEARING. 

TIME  BETWEEN  WASHING  AND  SHEARING. —  This  should 
be  determined  by  the  weather.  The  fleece  should  become 
thoroughly  dry,  and  be  so  far  again  lubricated  with  yolk  as 
to  have  its  natural  silky  feel  and  glossy  appearance.  The 
secretion  of  yolk  depends  much  on  temperature.  More  of  it 
is  secreted  in  one  really  hot  day  than  in  half  a  dozen  dry, 
cool  ones.  Consequently  the  time  of  shearing  should  be 
controlled  by  the  condition  of  the  wool,  and  not  by  the  lapse 
of  any  established  period  of  time.  The  old-fashioned  wool 
growers  usually  sheared  within  ten  days  of  washing,  if  the 
weather  was  dry,  without  much  respect  to  temperature. 
Their  successors,  for  reasons  which  have  been  repeatedly 
alluded  to,  generally  aim  to  let  enough  time  elapse  for  the 
fleece  to  become  well  nigh  as  yolky  as  it  was  before  washing. 

SHEARING. —  This  should  always  be  performed  on  smooth, 
clean  floors  or  platfonns,  with  the  sheep  penned  close  at  hand. 
If  the  weather  is  fair,  it  is  best  to  drive  only  enough  sheep 
into  the  pen  at  once  to  employ  the  shearers  three  hours  —  the 
rest  remaining  in  the  pasture  to  keep  themselves  filled  with 
feed.  A  hungry,  empty  sheep  is  more  impatient,  and  the 
shears  run  round  its  collapsed  belly  and  sides  with  more 
difficulty.  The  bottom  of  the  pen  should  be  kept  clean  with 
straw,  saw-dust,  or  corn-cobs.*  If  there  are  any  sheep  in  the 
pen  dirty  from  purging,  they  should  be  the  first  taken  out. 
They  should  be  carried  a  little  aside  from  the  shearing  floor 
and  the  dungy  locks  cut  away.  When  the  catcher  catches  a 
sheep  in  the  pen  he  should  lift  it  in  his  arms  clear  of  the  floor, 
instead  of  dragging  it  to  the  door  and  thus  filling  its  feet 
with  straw,  manure,  &c.  At  the  door  of  the  pen,  he  should 
hold  it  up  with  its  back  resting  against  his  own  body  and  its 
feet  projecting  toward  the  shearer^  who  should  be  there  with 
a  proper  shaped  stick  to  clear  its  feet  of  loose  filth,  and  with 
a  short  broom  to  free  its  belly  from  any  adhering  straws, 
chaff  or  saw-dust  —  before  the  sheep  is  carried  to  the  place  of 
shearing. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  any  practical  directions  for  shearing 
which  are  of  any  use  to  the  novice  ;  and  experienced  shearers 
do  not  need  them.  The  art  can  only  be  properly  acquired  by 
experience  and  observation.  A  few  suggestions,  however, 
may  not  be  entirely  thrown  away.  The  first  care  of  the 

*  These  last,  if  spread  on  the  bottom  of  the  pen  a  few  inches  deep,  answer  the 
purpose  admirably.  They  keep  the  feet  clean  and  do  not  adhere  to  the  wool  if  the 
sheep  lie  down, 


SHEAEING.  171 

shearer  should  be  to  clip  off  the  wool  evenly  and  smoothly, 
without  breaking  the  fleece  and  without  cutting  the  wool 
twice  in  two,  or  cutting  the  skin.  It  is  difficult  to  avoid  the 
last,  occasionally,  on  the  corrugated  surfaces  of  the  Merino : 
but  repeated  and  severe  cuts  should  always  procure  the 
shearer's  dismissal.  Especial  pains  are  to  be  taken  in  this 
particular  about  the  udders  of  ewes.  There  is  perhaps  less 
danger  if  these  are  large  and  in  sight.  In  the  case  of  a 
young  Merino  ewe  having  no  lamb,  and  whose  udder  is  small 
and  mostly  covered  with  wool,  I  have  repeatedly  seen  a  teat 
clipped  off — thus,  rendering  it  forever  after  incapable  of  allow- 
ing the  passage  of  .milk,  unless  re-opened  by  the  artificial  process 
already  described  at  page  157.  The  shearer  who  holds  his 
sheep  in  the  easiest  manner  for  itself,  who  keeps  it  confined 
for  the  least  period  in  one  and  especially  an  uncomfortable 
position,  and  who  makes  use  of  the  least  violence  in  case  it 
attempts  to  escape,  accomplishes  more  work,  performs  it 
better,  and  incurs  far  less  labor  and  fatigue. 

Wool  should  be  cut  off  reasonably  close,  but  not  close 
enough  to  have  the  skin  show  naked  and  red  —  so  as  to 
expose  it  to  sun-burn,  or  to  have  the  sheep  suffer  severely 
from  a  moderate  degree  of  cold.  The  English  shepherds 
have  a  system  of  shearing  their  large  sheep  in  uniform  ridges 
or  flutings,  running  in  a  particular  way,  which  has  a  very 
pleasing  appearance.  I  see  no  objections  to  it ;  and  every- 
thing which  tends  to  raise  any  process  toward  the  dignity  of 
art,  and  increase  the  esprit  du  corps  of  any  class  of  laborers, 
is  beneficial  both  to  themselves  and  their  employers. 

Fair  ordinary  shearers  will  shear  about  twenty -five 
common  Merinos  in  a  day,  and  active  ones  from  five  to  ten 
more.  The  highly  corrugated  sheep  which  are  now  becoming 
fashionable  among  a  class,  demand  far  more  time.  The 
comparatively  open-fleeces,  and  smooth,  round  carcasses  of  the 
English  breeds,  admit  of  considerably  more  rapid  shearing. 

While  sheep  are  being  sheared,  the  catcher  should  always 
be  at  hand  with  shovel  and  broom  to  remove  dung,  pick  up 
scattered  locks,  and  keep  the  floor  perfectly  clean.  When  a 
sheep  is  sheared,  he  should  catch  another  for  the  shearer  and 
set  it  on  a  new  place  on  the  floor,  before  taking  up  the  fleece 
of  its  predecessor.  This  done,  he  should  bring  the  preceding 
fleece  together  as  it  lies  with  its  inner  side  up,  and  then, 
pressing  it  between  his  hands  and  arms,  lift  it  up,  carry  it  to 
the  folding  table  and  turn  it  over  as  he  lays  it  down.  He 


172  STUBBLE    SHEARING   AND   TRIMMING. 

next  should  go  back,  pick  up  every  "  frib,"  and  sweep  the 
place  so  that  it  will  be  ready  for  another  sheep.* 

STUBBLE  SHEARING  AND  TRIMMING. — If  wool  is  left  half 
an  inch  long  or  more  at  shearing,  it  will,  of  course,  (in  the 
case  of  all  varieties  which  do  not  annually  shed  their  wool,) 
retain  that  extra  length  through  the  ensuing  year.  This  is 
called  "stubble  shearing;"  and  is  sometimes  resorted  to  by 
the  sellers  of  Merino  sheep  to  deceive  purchasers  in  relation 
to  the  actual  length  of  the  staple.  The  sellers  are  always 
ready  to  make  or  produce  affidavits,  if  need  be,  of  the  time 
of  shearing  —  but  the  mode  of  shearing  is  not  stated  in  these 
interesting  documents!  Indeed,  thousands  of  unsuspecting 
buyers  never  think  to  ask  that  question.  "Stubbling"  is  par- 
ticularly convenient  to  convert  an  unimproved  Merino  into 
an  improved  one  in  appearance,  by  doubling  the  length  of 
wool  about  the  head,  legs,  belly,  etc.,  where  the  former  is 
most  deficient. 

"  Trimming  "  is  a  little  higher  branch  of  the  same  art.  It 
is  "  cutting  a  sheep  into  form,"  by  shortening  the  wool  where 
there  is  over-fullness,  and  leaving  it  longer  where  there  is  a 
lack  of  fullness,  so  that  the  sheep  takes  many  of  its  leading 
points  —  such  as  fullness  in  the  crops,  straightness  of  back, 
etc.  —  quite  as  much  from  the  shears  as  from  nature.  This  is 
practiced  by  exhibitors  for  prizes  in  the  show  yards  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  !f 

"  Trimming "  has  entirely  the  advantage  on  the  score  of 
respectability  of  association,  for  "  stubbling  "  in  this  country 
is  not  practiced  by  any  but  the  acknowledged  Bedouins  "  of 
the  profession!"  Both  are  disreputable  frauds. 

SHEARING  LAMBS  AND  SHEARING  SHEEP  SEMI -ANNUALLY. 
—  When  lambs  are  yeaned,  as  Mr.  Chamberlain's  Silesians 
are,  in  the  early  part  of  winter,  and  fed  up  to  a  large  size 
before  shearing,  there  is  no  impropriety  in  shearing  them  in 
the  spring  with  their  dams ;  but  there  can  be  no  good  reason 
for  shearing  spring  lambs  when  two  or  three  months  old. 

*  I  once  knew  a  powerful  Englishman  who  would  thus  tend  twelve  good  shearers, 
do  up  the  wool  beautifully,  (this  was  when  the  fleeces  were  done  up  entirely  by  hand,) 
:ind  bring  out  the  sheep  so  fast  that  the  shearers  were  constantly  hurried  by  him  I 
Most  who  both  catch  and  do  up  the  wool  do  not  tend  more  than  half  a  dozen  shearers, 
and  want  a  boy  to  pick  up  the  fribs. 

t  So  says  the  Editor  of  the  Mark-Lane  Express  (by  implication,)  in  his  paper  of 
January  19th,  1863,  and  he  there  entirely  dissents  from  the  opinion  of  a  correspondent 
who  asserts  that  the  animals  which  take  the  prizes  are  those  which  are  "least  cut 
into  form." 


DOING   UP   WOOL. 


173 


Sheep  are  sheared  twice  a  year  in  portions  of  the  Southern 
States.  This  may  be  a  sort  of  necessity  to  save  the  wool, 
where  they  are  suffered  to  run  at  large  in  forests  or  on  lands 
infested  by  brambles.  But  where  sheep  are  treated  like  domes- 
ticated animals,  and  kept  on  cleared  and  inclosed  pastures, 
neither  necessity  nor  utility  can  be  pleaded  for  the  practice. 

DOING  UP  WOOL. —  The  fleece  having  been  desposited  on 
the  folding  table,  with  its  inside  ends  downward,  the  wool-tyer 


FOLDING   TABLE. 

first  spreads  it  out  to  its  full  extent,  restoring  every  part  to 

its   natural   relative  position.      Dung   and   other   impurities 

being  removed,  the  fleece  is  pressed  together  in  the   same 

position  as  closely  as  practicable.     One  of  the  sides   (1   in 

above  cut,)  is  then  folded  directly  over  or  inverted  toward 

the    middle    of  the 

fleece  so  that  it  covers 

5.    The  opposite  side 

(2)  is  then  folded  over 

and  inward  in   the 

same  way,  covering  6, 

and  leaving  the  fleece 

in  a  long  strip,  some 

twenty  inches    wide. 

The  neck  (3)  is  next 

folded    toward   the 

breech;  and  the  breech 

(4)  toward  the  neck. 

The  fleece  is  now 

brought  into  the  ob-  ™E  EEADT  rOB  PBM9' 

long  square  represented  by  5  and  6.    ILtving  placed  the  clean 


174 


DOING    UP    WOOL,. 


FLEECE  IN  PRESS. 


fribs  belonging  to  the  fleece  in  a  bunch  on  top,  and  having 
folded  5  over  on  6,  so  that  it  will  take  the  form  presented 
in  the  preceding  cut,  it  is  ready  for  the  wool  press.  The 
wool-tyer  then  takes  it  carefully 
between  his  hands  and  arms,  so  as 
not  to  disturb  its  arrangement,  and 
places  it  unbroken  in  the  wool 
press,  either  on  one  side,  as  in  the 
left  hand  cut  annexed,  or  on  what 
may  be  termed  its  edge,  as  in  right 
hand  cut  annexed. 
The  wool  press  I  consider  one  of  the  most  convenient 
minor  agricultural  inventions  of  the  day.  Combining  some 
previous  plans  with  my  own,  I  furnished  a  plan  of  it  substan- 
tially as  it  now  is,  except  that  it  was  worked  by  a  lever 
instead  of  the  crank  arrangement  described  below,  to  Mr. 
James  Geddes,  of  Fairmount,  New  York.  Mr.  Geddes 
perfected  it  by  adding  that  arrangement.  I  am  indebted  to 
him  for  the  following  cut  and  description : 

"The  Press  consists  of  a  substantial  and  firmly  made  box,  sup- 
ported on  legs  of  convenient  height ;  the  length  of  the  box,  four  feet, 
and  its  width  eleven  niches,  and  its  depth  ten  and  one -half  inches, 
both  measured  inside  of  the  box.*  One  end  or  head  of  this  box  (a) 
is  fixed,  and  strongly 

braced  by  a  sort  of  iron  ft    a, 

bracket  made  for  the 
purpose;  the  other  or 
movable  head  (&,)  has  a 
horizontal  support  to 
which  it  is  also  firmly 
braced,  and  slides  under 
the  elect  nailed  at  /  up 
to  within  any  requisite 
distance  of  the  other 
head,  a.  Through  both 
the  heads  there  are  three 
perpendicular  slits 
which  render  so  many 
braces  essential  to  their 
strength,  and  through 
which  the  strings  are 
extended  for  the  tying 
of  the  fleece.  In  oper- 
ation, these  strings  having  been  put  in  place,  the  fleece  is  folded  to  go 
into  the  box,  but  not  rolled ;  the  crank,  turned  by  hand  and  prevented 
by  a  ratchet  from  springing  back,  moves  the  roller  at  d,  which,  by 
means  of  the  strap,  two  inches  wide,  shown  at  c,  pulls  up  the  follower 

*  Large  fleeces  require  a  rather  larger  box. 


WOOL    PBESS. 


FRAUDS   IN   DOING   UP   WOOL.  175 

6  —  the  strings  are  tied ;  the  catch  lifted  and  crank  reversed,  when  the 
straps,  one  inch  wide  each,  at  g,  draw  back  the  follower,  and  the 
fleece  is  released  in  perfect  shape." 

There  are  several  other  forms  of  wool  presses,  but  they 
possess  so  little  proportionable  value  that  I  do  not  regard 
them  as  worth  describing.* 

The  fleece  comes  from  the  press  in  a  nearly  square  mass, 
and  if  it  is  properly  folded,  and  placed  in  the  machine  with 
respectable  skill,  not  a  black  or  outside  end  of  a  single  lock  is 
visible ;  and  none  but  the  best  parts  of  the  fleece  are  visible. 
This  is  expected  by  the  buyer,  and  therefore  has  no  odor  of 
deception  about  it. 

The  twine  used  in  tying  should  be  of  flax  or  hemp.  If 
of  cotton,  particles  of  it  are  liable  to  be  mixed  with  the  wool 
and  to  become  incorporated  with  the  cloth.  They  receive 
different  colors  from  wool  in  the  process  of  dyeing,  and  might 
thus  spot  the  surfaces  of  dark,  fine  cloths.  Wool  twine  should 
be  large  enough  not  to  render  the  continuous  tying  of  it  too 
painful  to  the  fingers,  but  if  over  large,  it  looks  unwork- 
manlike and  also  as  if  the  seller  was  anxious  to  sell  twine  for 
wool.  The  three  bands  of  twine  placed  on  each  fleece  in  the 
press  is  sufficient,  unless  it  comes  loose  at  the  edges  and 
requires  an  extra  band  placed  round  it,  the  other  way,  after 
being  taken  from  the  press. 

FRAUDS  IN  DOING  UP  WOOL. —  Some  farmers  have  the 
habit,  if  they  have  a  few  sheep  die  in  winter,  of  putting  the 
wool  pulled  from  them  into  the  sheared  wool,  distributing  a 
a  handful  or  two  into  each  fleece.  If  the  pulled  wool  is 
unwashed  and  the  fleeces  are  sold  as  washed,  the  practice  is 
a  serious  fraud.  If  the  pulled  wool  is  washed,  or  is  in  the 
same  condition  in  this  respect  with  the  fleece  wool,  then  it  is 
a  petty  fraud — for  pulled  wool  is  not  as  well  adapted  to  some 

*  The  only  possible  exception,  I  think,  is  the  original  of  this  press,  worked  by  a 
lever.  It  is  not  so  good  an  implement  as  the  above,  but  is  much  more  conveniently 
made  with  the  rough  tools  usually  found  on  a  farm.  One  end  of  the  lever  passes 
through  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  cross-piece  or  brace,  which  is  nailed  on  the  left 
hand  legs  of  the  machine,  near  their  bottom,  as  seen  in  the  cnt.  The  strap  (c,)  which 
is  attached  in  above  cut  to  the  movable  head  (6,)  is  fastened  to  the  lever  under  the 
front  end  of  box  (d.)  The  lever  is  a  couple  of  feet  longer  than  the  box,  so  that  a  man 
can,  if  necessary,  stand  on  the  elevated  end  to  press  it  down.  That  end  is  raised 
about  half-way  from  the  floor  to  the  box,  when  the  movable  head  (b)  is  slid  back  to  /. 
Consequently  when  forced  down  by  the  foot,  it  draws  forward  the  sliding  head  toward 
the  stationary  one,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  crank  does  above.  A  strip  of  notched 
iron  attached  perpendicularly  to  the  inside  of  one  of  the  fore-legs  with  a  piece  of  iron 
on  the  lever  to  catch  into  the  notches,  holds  down  the  lever  to  any  point  to  which  it  is 
pressed.  The  lever-press  requires  to  be  fastened  to  the  floor  by  a  hook  and  staple  at 
the  rear  end,  to  prevent  it  tipping  up  when  the  weight  of  a  man  is  put  on  the  lever  at 
the  other  end. 


176  STOKING   WOOL. 

purposes  as  sheared  wool,  and  "dead  wool"  is  apt  to  be 
inferior  in  various  particulars.*  Putting  unwashed  tags  into 
washed  fleeces  is  also  fraudulent.  If  as  well  washed  as  the 
wool,  it  is  not  fraudulent,  for  they  are  parts  of  the  same 
fleeces.f  Breech  wool  simply  discolored  by  dung  may  enter 
the  fleece,  but  all  respectable  flock-masters  should  take  good 
care  that  no  lumps  or  masses  of  dung  are  accidentally  rolled 
up  in  it.  Locks  wet  with  urine  should  be  dried  in  the  sun 
before  being  done  up  in  the  fleece.  It  is  not  a  fraud  to  put 
the  hairy  shank  wool  in  the  fleece,  but  it  is  unworkmanlike. 
It  is  fraudulent  to  sell  fleeces  burred  to  any  extent,  unless 
the  buyer  is  distinctly  put  on  his  guard.  All  such  fleeces, 
however  much  or  little  burred,  should  be  put  by  themselves, 
and  the  buyer  invited  to  open  them.J 

STORING  WOOL. —  Wool  should  be  stored  in  a  clean,  dry 
room,  into  which  neither  dust,  vermin  nor  insects  can  obtain 
entrance.  Both  of  the  latter  are  very  fond  of  building  nests 
in  it.§  A  north  light  is  the  best  one  to  show  wool  in.  If 
there  is  room  for  it,  the  fleeces  should  be  piled  up  neatly 
and  regularly  in  walls,  with  alleys  between,  so  that  a  large 
proportion  of  them  can  be  seen  by  the  purchaser  without 
disturbing  their  arrangement.  Fleeces  of  the  same  lot  or 
flock  should  be  piled  promiscuously,  or  divided  into  lots 
according  to  quality.  If  the  want  of  room  or  other  circum- 
stances require  the  wool  to  be  piled  in  a  large,  compact 
mass,  it  is  not  only  for  the  character  but  even  often  for  the 
immediate  interests  of  the  seller  to  place  a  full  proportion  of 
the  inferior  fleeces  in  sight.  Few  persons  buy  without 
opening  the  pile  somewhat,  and  he  who  opens  it  and  finds 
that  it  has  been  "faced"  with  the  best  fleeces,  is  apt  to 
overestimate  the  inferiority  of  that  which  remains  unseen. 

It  is  a  common  but  erroneous  idea,  that  wool  continues  to 
gain  in  weight  for  long  periods  after  being  stored.  It  does 
so  for  a  short  time :  at  any  rate  it  has  where  I  have  seen  the 
fact  tested;  -but  every  wool  merchant  knows  that  in  the 
course  of  a  year  it  loses  several  per  cent,  by  the  evaporation 
of  yolk  and  moisture. 

*  When  the  sheep  die  of  diseases  it  is  apt  to  be  uneven,  jointed,  weak,  harsh 
and  unelastic. 

t  And  the  buyer  is  a  gainer  by  their  being  washed  separately,  because,  being 
severed  from  the  sheep,  they  receive  no  yolk  after  washing. 

J  However  badly  wool  is  burred,  not  one  is  usually  visible  ou  the  outside  of  fleece 
when  it  is  well  done  up  in  a  press. 

§  Especially  rats  mice  &nd  bumble-bees. 


PLACE    FOK    SELLING   WOOL  —  WOOL   DEPOTS.  177 

PLACE  FOR  SELLING  WOOL. — JMy  own  experience  and 
observation  for  more  than  thirty  years,  in  regard  to  selling 
wool,  has  satisfied  me  that,  on  the  whole,  the  best,  and,  to  the 
farmer,  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  place  for  disposing  of  his 
clip,  is  at  home  in  his  own  wool  room.  It  shows  better  there 
than  in  the  sack ;  and  the  bargain  a  man  makes  for  himself,  he 
is  bound  to  rest  contented  with.  The  local  competition,  too, 
in  places  frequented  by  buyers,  I  think  usually  runs  up  prices 
to  quite  as  high  a  point  as  the  general  market  authorizes  at 
the  time  of  sale  —  not  unfrequently  quite  as  high  as  would  be 
received  directly  from  the  manufacturer,  after  deducting 
freight  and  the  other  incidental  charges  which  cluster  round 
such  transactions. 

WOOL  DEPOTS  AND  COMMISSION  STORES. —  The  wool 
depot  system,  as  it  was  called,  was  introduced  by  H. 
Blanchard,  at  Kinderhook,  New  York,  in  1844.  It  was 
conducted  on  the  same  general  principles  with  the  ordinary 
commission  establishments,  but  varied  in  its  method  of 
transacting  business.  Each  lot  of  wool  was  graded  and 
stapled  and  the  owner  credited  with  the  amount ;  but  his 
wool  was  no  longer  kept  separate.  The  charges  were  for 
receiving,  sorting  and  selling,  one  cent  a  pound ;  cartage, 
three  cents  a  bale ;  and  insurance,  usually  thirty  cents  on  $100 
for  three  months.  The  anticipated  advantages  of  the  system 
were  that  each  owner  would  get  the  highest  market  value  for 
his  wool,  and  that  the  manufacturer  could  afford  to  pay  a 
better  price  when  he  could  buy  the  kind  he  wanted  unmixed 
with  others.  T.  C.  Peters  opened  such  an  establishment  at 
Buffalo,  New  York,  in  1847,  Perkins  &  Brown  one  at 
Springfield,  Massachusetts ;  and  I  think  others  were  com- 
menced. It  was  anticipated  for  a  time  that  they  would 
receive  and  sell  most  of  the  wool  of  the  country,  but,  though 
conducted  with  acknowledged  skill  and  probity,  the  system 
failed  utterly.  Americans  generally  prefer  to  do  their  own 
bargaining.  Wool  commission  stores,  however,  still  flourish 
in  the  important  centers  of  commerce.  For  a  class  of 
sellers  —  those  like  the  prairie  wool  growers,  for  example, 
who  have  large  lots  and  no  suitable  place  of  storage,  or  those 
who  are  remote  from  regular  markets  and  wish  to  realize  at 
stated  periods  —  they  are  indispensable. 

SACKING  WOOL. — When  wool  is   sold  at  the  barn,  the 
place  of  delivery  is  the  subject  of  stipulation.     The  sacking, 
8* 


178  SACKING   WOOL. 

unless  otherwise  agreed,  must  be  done  by  the  purchaser.  It 
is  sacked  in  bales  nine  feet  long,  formed  of  two  breadths  of 
"  burlaps "  from  35  to  40  inches  wide.  The  mouth  of  the 
sack  is  sowed  with  twine  round  a  strongly  iron-riveted  hoop, 
and  the  body  of  it  is  let  down  through  a  circular  aperture 
usually  in  the  floor  of  the  loft  or  room  where  the  wool  is 
stored,  if  it  is  in  an  upper  story.  If  sacked  on  the  farm,  and 
the  wool  room  is  not  in  an  upper  story,  a  temporary  platform 
is  sometimes  erected  for  that  purpose,  and  the  wool  tossed  up 
to  a  catcher.  The  hoop  rests  on  the  edges  of  the  floor  around 
the  hole,  and  the  suspended  sack  should  swing  clear  of 
everything  beneath.  A  man  enters  it,  and  another  standing 
at  the  mouth  passes  down  the  fleeces  to  him.  He  arranges 
them  as  closely  as  possible  in  successive  layers  arid  tramples 
them  down  with  his  feet  until  they  are  as  compact  as  they 
can  be  made.  When  the  bale  is  filled,  the  top  of  it  is  sowed 
up  with  twine,  and  it  is  marked  as  the  buyer  wishes.  It 
renders  the  bales  more  convenient  for  lifting,  if  handles  are 
formed  by  tying  up  a  little  wool  in  their  lower  corners. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

SUMMER  MANAGEMENT  -CONTINUED, 

DRAFTING    AND     SELECTION REGISTRATION MARKING    AND 

NUMBERING  —  STORMS     AFTER      SHEARING SUN  -  SCALD 

TICKS  —  SHORTENING   HORNS MAGGOTS  —  CONFINING  RAMS 

TRAINING       RAMS  FENCES  SALT TAR,      SULPHUR, 

ALUM,    &C. —  WATER    IN     PASTURES  —  SHADE    IN    PASTURES 
HOUSING   SHEEP   IN   SUMMER PAMPERING. 

DRAFTING  AND  SELECTION. — To  secure  constant  improve- 
ment in  a  stock  of  sheep,  as  well  as  to  remove  all  animals 
from  it  which  have  individual  peculiarities  which  render 
them  comparatively  unprofitable,  or  troublesome,  it  is 
necessary  annually  to  "draft"  the  flock,  as  it  is  termed,  that 
is,  exclude  from  it  all  animals  which  fall  below  a  certain 
standard  of  excellence.  The  leading  defects  to  be  had  in 
view  in  drafting  are,  first,  the  general  ones  of  a  want  of  the 
requisite  degree  of  perfection  in  the  form  and  fleece,  judged 
by  the  existing  standard  of  the  flock.  What  satisfies  the 
owner,  in  these  respects,  in  one  generation  of  sheep,  ought 
not  to  in  the  next.  However  perfect  the  flock,  there  ought 
to  be  some  degree  of  improvement  visible  in  the  get  of  every 
new  stock  ram,  or  that  ram  ought  at  once  to  give  place  to 
another.  And  as  each  year  brings  more  perfect  younger 
animals  into  breeding,  the  most  defective  old  ones  should  be 
excluded,  or  drafted,  to  make  place  for  them.  If,  however, 
the  get  of  a  new  stock  ram  do  not  meet  expectation  —  or  if 
it  is  found  that  they  bring  some  new  prominent  fault  into  the 
flock,  or,  what  is  still  worse,  restore  an  old  one  partly  bred 
out  and  toward  which  a  predisposition  yet  lingers  in  the 
flock  —  or  if  they  present  a  type  not  uniform  with  the 
established  type  of  the  flock,  even  though,  in  itself,  it  may 
be  an  equally  good  one  —  it  would  be  better  to  draft  this 
entire  get  of  lambs,  and  allow  the  year  of  their  birth  to  be  a 
stationary  one  in  the  progress  of  the  flock. 


180  DRAFTING REGISTRATION. 

The  principal  special  and,  in  prime  flocks,  exceptional 
defects  which  call  for  drafting,  are  weakness  of  constitution, 
predispositions  to  particular  diseases,  poor  qualities  either  as 
breeders  or  mothers,  difficulties  of  any  kind  connected  with 
lambing,  tendencies  to  barrenness,  or  any  important  vices, 
such  as  wool-biting,  jumping,  untamable  wildness,  &c.  Ewes 
which  have  attained  an  advanced  age  are  usually  excluded 
unless  they  are  peculiar  favorites.  If  crones  are  retained  on 
account  of  their  marked  value  as  breeders,  they  ought,  both 
on  the  score  of  utility  and  appearance,  to  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  flock  and  fed  and  nursed  by  themselves. 

The  selection  of  the  young  stock  to  take  the  place  of  the 
drafted  sheep,  should  not  depend  on  one  examination, 
however  deliberate  and  careful.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  operations  of  the  sheep  farm,  and  can  only  be 
properly  performed  by  noting  the  characteristics  of  every 
animal  in  the  young  flock,  from  the  time  it  is  yeaned  until 
that  for  selection  arrives. 

The  best  time  for  drafting  is  at  shearing.  There  is  no 
other  one  period  during  the  entire  year  when  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  each  individual  are  either  so  apparent  to  the  eye, 
or  so  fresh  in  the  recollection,  as  then.  No  person  ever 
attains  so  perfect  a  knowledge  of  the  fleece  in  any  other  way 
as  by  seeing  it  roll  from  the  carcass  under  the  shears,  spread 
out  on  the  folding  table,  handled  into  and  out  of  the  wool- 
press,  and  put  to  the  last  and  crowning  test  of  being 
separtely  weighed.  The  least  defect  of  form,  too,  is  then 
laid  most  naked.  And,  finally,  in  the  case  of  sheep  not 
permanently  numbered,  if  the  drafting  and  selection  are  not 
then  made,  the  removal  of  the  fleece  usually  destroys  all 
means  of  distinctly  identifying  the  animal,  and  consequently 
of  recalling  its  past  history,  unless  in  the  case  of  a  few  very 
superior  or  otherwise  peculiar  animals. 

REGISTRATION. —  Some  owners  of  small  and  very  carefully 
managed  flocks  remember,  or  imagine  they  remember,  the 
history  of  every  sheep  in  them;  but  this  is  obviously 
impracticable  in  regard  to  flocks  of  any  considerable  size.  A 
history  of  each  individual  sheep  is  by  no  means  necessary  in 
a  flock  kept  mainly  for  wool-growing  or  mutton  purposes,  or 
in  order  to  effect  a  good  and  even  a  rapid  degree  of  general 
improvement  in  any  flock;  but  it  is  indispensable  to  the 
breeder  to  enable  him  to  make  the  greatest  individual  as 
well  as  general  improvement  —  to  preserve  his  pedigrees 


KEGISTKATION. 


181 


correctly  —  and  to  sell  sheep  with  a  full  understanding  of 
their  particular  qualities  at  periods  of  the  year  when  those 
qualities  cannot  be  determined  solely  by  the  eye.  The 
careful  breeder  should  invariably  be  on  the  shearing  floor 
with  his  Register  in  his  hand,  minutely  scrutinizing  each 
sheep  as  its  fleece  is  taken  off,  and  noting  down  his  observa- 
tions on  the  spot.  It  is  most  convenient  to  have  a  prescribed 
form  of  record  in  which  each  particular  can  be  stated  by  a 
figure ;  and  it  will,  of  course,  include  those  particulars  which 
each  person  is  most  desirous  of  preserving.  I  have  always 
had  my  own  include  such  facts  as  would  give  me  a  full 
general  idea  of  the  sheep  without  going  beyond  the  record. 
I  have  changed  the  form  several  times,  but  that  used  for  the 
last  three  or  four  years  has  been  a  blank  book  with  each  page 
ruled  into  columns,  and  headed  as  follows : 


ft 

fc  •< 

to 

Lamb  at  heel. 

Breeding  qualities. 

Weight  of  fleece. 

Quality  of  wool. 

i 

•s 

3 
1 

Thickness  of  fleece.  I 

Yolkiness. 

Covering  of  belly.  1 

"o 
1 

Wrinkliness. 

Constitution. 

REMAKKS. 

1  4 

*2  5 

1 
5 

i 

i 

0 
4 

1 
3 

§H 

5 

3 
1 

i 

a 

2 
3 

3 
2 

1 
4 

4 
1 

1 
5 

1 

4 

Except  in  the  columns  for  number,  age,  and  weight  of 
fleece,  the  figures  imply  relative  degree  or  quality :  and  1  is 
assumed  as  the  maximum  and  5  as  the  minimum  of  that 
degree  or  quality.  Thus  the  first  of  the  above  records  being 
translated  reads  thus  :  No.  1  is  four  years  old,  very  large,  of 
middling  form,  has  no  lamb,  has  hitherto  exhibited  first  rate 
breeding  qualities,  yields  S^lbs.  of  wool,  the  wool  is  of  middling 
quality,  and  of  the  longest  staple,  its  thickness  is  better  than 
middling  but  not  first  rate,  yolkmess  medium,  covering  on 
belly  excellent,  the  head  badly  covered,  wrinkled  in  the 


182  PERMANENT  MARKS    ON   SIIEEP. 

highest  degree,  constitution  excellent.  The  second  would 
read  thus:  No.  2  is  5  years  old,  is  of  the  smallest  size,  of  the 
best  form,  has  an  inferior  lamb,  her  breeding  qualities  are 
only  middling,  weight  of  fleece  5  Ibs.,  quality  of  wool  prime, 
length  of  staple  middling,  thickness  of  fleece  middling,  fleece 
of  more  than  medium  yolkiness,  covering  of  belly  below 
middling,  covering  of  head  first  rate,  no  wrinkles,  constitution 
quite  defective.  The  star  at  the  left  of  No.  2,  signifies  that 
she  is  to  be  drafted  from  the  flock.  If  I  had  a  ram  exceed- 
ingly strong  in  the  points  where  No.  1  was  most  defective 
viz.,  in  form,  quality  of  wool  and  covering  of  head,  I  should 
be  likely  to  write  his  name  opposite  in  the  column  of 
"  Remarks,"  to  signify  the  propriety  of  coupling  them  the 
ensuing  fall.  If  any  sheep  had  any  special  defect  not 
included  in  the  record,  I  would  place  that  fact  in -the  same 
column.  * 

The  above  system  of  registration  may  appear  to  many 
persons  to  be  attended  with  a  good  deal  of  labor  and  trouble. 
I  know  by  abundant  experience  that  there  is  not  the  slightest 
difficulty  in  recording  these  memoranda  with  the  utmost  care 
and  accuracy,  and  at  the  same  time  keeping  up  with  five  or 
six  shearers.  To  prevent  any  confusion,  where  there  is  alone 
a  chance  for  it,  namely,  in  crediting  fleeces  to  the  wrong 
sheep,  I  throw  down  a  card  by  each  sheep  which  is  being 
sheared,  marked  with  its  number  as  entered  in  the  Register, 
in  connection  with  its  other  qualities.  The  card  is  taken  up 
with  the  fleece,  and  kept  with  it  until  the  latter  is  done  up 
and  weighed.  Habit  soon  renders  the  eye  prompt  to  decide, 
and  at  least  as  accurate  here  as  under  any  other  circum- 
stances. I  had  as  lief  sell  sheep,  or  select  them  for  coupling, 
by  my  Register,  as  to  give  them  a  new  examination  at  the 
time ;  and  I  certainly  could  do  so  far  more  understandingly 
than  by  examination  without  the  Register  at  any  period 
within  five  or  six  months  after  shearing. 

MARKING  AND  NUMBERING. —  Sheep  should  be  marked 
immediately  after  shearing  with  the  mark  of  ownership  — 
usually  two  of  the  owner's  initials  stamped  on  the  side  by  an 
iron  brand  dipped  in  paint.  Whether  they  need  additional 
marks,  so  that  each  can  at  any  time  be  distinguished  from  all 
the  rest  of  the  flock,  depends  upon  the  owner's  modes  of 

*  It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  the  above  are  merely  imaginary  cases  to  illus- 
trate the  mode  of  keeping  a  record.  Such  a  sheep  as  No.  2.  would  hardly  be  found  in 
*ny  good  breeding  flock. 


PERMANENT  MARKS    ON   SHEEP.  183 

treatment,  breeding,  &c.  In  "Sheep  Husbandry  in  the 
South,"  I  recommended  Von  Thaer's  elaborate  system  of 
permanently  numbering  lambs,  by  notches  on  the  ear.  By 
this,  one  notch  over  the  left  ear  signifies  1 ;  two  notches  over 
the  same,  2  ;  one  notch  under  the  same,  3 ;  three  notches 
under  the  left  ear,  9;  one  notch  over  the  right  ear,  10;  two 
over  same,  20  ;  a  notch  under  the  right  ear,  30  ;  three  notches 
under  right  ear,  90 ;  a  notch  in  end  of  left  ear,  100 ;  in  the 
end  of  right  ear,  200 ;  these  added  together,  300  ;  the  point  of 
the  left  ear  cut  square  off,  400 ;  the  point  of  the  right  ear  cut 
square  off,  500 ;  the  latter  and  the  notch  for  100  added,  600, 
and  so  on. 

Von  Thaer  indicated  the  age  by  round  holes  in  the  ears. 
As  there  could  not  be  a  mistake  of  ten  years  in  the  age  of  a 
sheep,  the  holes  are  the  same  for  every  succeeding  ten  years. 
The  absence  of  any  hole  indicates  the  beginning  of  each 
decade  of  years,  as  1840,  1850,  or  1860;  one  hole  hi  left 
ear,  1861;  two  holes  in  left,  1862;  one  hole  in  right,  1863; 
one  hole  in  right,  and  one  in  left,  1864 ;  one  hole  in  right  and 
two  in  left,  1865 ;  two  in  right,  1866 ;  two  in  the  right,  and 
one  in  left,  1867  ;  two  in  each,  1868 ;  three  in  the  right,  1869 ; 
none  in  either,  1870.* 

I  have  again  given  this  system  of  numbering  because  it 
has  proved  a  highly  satisfactory  one  to  some  pains-taking 
men ;  but  I  confess  I  long  since  got  tired  of  and  abandoned 
it.  It  requires  considerable  trouble ;  and  if  the  holes  and 
notches  are  not  made  large  enough  to  mutilate  the  ear,  they 
are  liable  to  heal  up  or  become  obscure  ;  and  they  therefore 
require  watching  while  healing.  Even  when  made  as  small 
as  will  answer,  they  still,  in  high  numbers,  cause  a  dis- 
agreeable mutilation. 

There  is  another  German  system  by  which  the  different 
numerals  are  made  by  rows  of  sharp,-  steel  points  inserted  in 
metallic  types,  as  in  the  two  upper  figures  on  following 
page ;  and  these  types  have  dovetails  which  can  be  slid  into 
corresponding  grooves  (a  a  a  a  in  cut  on  next  page)  in  the 
lower  jaw  of  a  pair  of  nippers  constructed  for  the  purpose, 
and  thus  will  be  made  ready  for  use. 

The  inside  of  the  ear  is  smeared  with  a  thick  paint  made 
of  vermillion,  indigo,  or  gunpowder  and  whiskey.  By  means 
of  the  nippers,  the  steel  points  giving  the  proper  numbers,  are 

*  The  proper  instrument  to  use  is  a  spring  punch  like  those  used  by  railroad 
conductors  —  cutting  a  hole  a  little  less  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  James 
Martin,  20  Beaver  Street,  Albany,  manufactures  beautiful  ones  of  any  size,  to  order. 


184  PERMANENT   MARKS    ON    SHEEP. 

forced  into  the  skin  inside  the  ear  as  far  as  is  practicable 
without  causing  bleeding,  and  when  they  are  withdrawn  the 
paint  is  rubbed  into  the  punctures.  Mr.  Fleichmann  —  t- 


MARKING   IMPLEMENTS. 

whose  Report  on  German  Sheep*  I  am  indebted  for  the 
illustrations  of  this  process — declares,  as  the  result  of  his 
own  observation  and  experience,  that  it  succeeds  fully,  and 
that  the  numbers  remain  visible  "  in  old  sheep  which  have 
been  marked  for  several  years." 

I  have  seen  imported  sheep  which  had  been  perfectly 
tattooed  in  this  way; 
and  it  constitutes  a 
very  beautiful  mode 
of  marking  for  those 
who  have  time  and 

taste     for    manipula-  INSIDE  EAB  MABKS. 

tions  demanding  so  much  care.  They  must  be  performed 
with  great  exactness  to  be  successful.  Mr.  George  Campbell, 
of  West  Westminster,  Vt.,  writes  me  that  uhe  likes  the 
system  very  much  when  the  figures  can  be  made  plain ;  that 
he  has  been  using  gunpowder,  but  does  not  get  all  the  figures 
legible  ;  that  he  is  now  experimenting  with  India  ink." 

A  third  mode  of  permanent  marking  is  performed  by 
punching  a  hole  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  through  the 
ear  and  inserting  a  lead  rivet  of  the  size  and  form  of  the 
ordinary  No.  8  copper  belt  rivet,  sold  in  hardware  shops. 
Like  the  belt  rivet,  it  has  a  bur  on  which  the  opposite  end 

*  In  United  States  Patent  Office  Report  for  1847. 


PERMANENT   MARKS    ON   SHEEP.  185 

of  the  rivet  is  headed  down,  on  the  inner  side  of  the  ear. 
The  head  is  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  on  this  is 
stamped  the  number  of  the  sheep.  I  have  never  tested  it; 
but  learn  that  it  has  given  satisfaction  to  those  who  have 
done  so.  The  copper  belt  rivet  itself  might  be  used. 

A  fourth  mode  of  permanent  marking  was  introduced  to 
some  extent  among  the  breeders  of  New  York  in  1862.  To 
a  ring  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  circumference, 
and  forme,d  of  smallish  No.  14  brass  wire,  was 
suspended  a  plate  of  copper  of  the  form  exhibited 
in  the  annexed  cut,  on  which  were  stamped  the 
initials  of  the  owner's  name,  and  the  number  of 
the  sheep.  The  ring  was  inserted  about  the 
middle  of  the  ear,  so  that  the  plate  would  remain 
visible  outside  the  wool.  It  was  found,  however, 
that  the  ring  sometimes  cut  down  through  the 
ear,  and  sometimes  that  it  was  itself  cut  through 
by  the  plate.  The  cutting  of  the  ear  might 
doubtless  be  prevented  by  making  the  holes HETAL  EAKMAKK- 
with  a  punch,  and  allowing  them  to  heal  fully  before 
inserting  the  rings,*  and,  if  necessary,  reducing  the  weight 
of  the  plate  by  making  it  no  larger  than  in  the  cut,  or  even 
no  larger  than  a  five  or  three  cent  piece,  and  as  thin  as  the 
last  named  coin.  This  reduction  of  weight  would  probably 
also  prevent  the  ring  from  being  cut  through.  Or  a  split  steel 
ring,  or  a  small  T  might  take  the  place  of  the  brass  ring,  f 
This  is  so  neat  and  convenient  a  mode  of  permanent  marking, 
that  it  ought  to  be  brought  to  perfection. 

If  not  permanently  numbered,  every  large  flock  of  any 
considerable  value,  from  which  sales  of  breeding  sheep  are  to 
be  made,  or  which  is  to  be  bred  with  particular  reference  to 
individual  characteristics,  should  be  annually  numbered  —  for 
without  this  there  can  be  no  registration.  It  is  performed  by 
stamping  figures  about  2£  inches  long,  on  the  side  or  rump, 
with  paint,  by  means  of  iron  or  wooden  brands.  The  latter 
are  cut  like  a  type  on  the  end  of  blocks  of  soft  wood.  It  is 
convenient  to  have  a  box  of  brands  (arranged  and  kept  in 
their  order,)  with  special  marks  for  wethers,  cull  or  draft 

*  Brass  is  corrosive  to  a  new  wound,  and  by  keeping  the  edges  of  the  hole  raw, 
works  down  through  the  ear  more  readily. 

t  The  ring  turning  freely  in  a  hole  on  sound  healed  up  flesh,  would  be  less  likely 
to  cut  through.  The  split  ring  is  inserted  with  considerable  difficulty.  The  T,  half  an 
inch  long,  inserted  through  a  hole  already  healed  and  lying  across  the  upper  side  of 
the  ear  could  not  cut  through.  But  if  the  plate  is  lightened,  as  suggested,  (its  upper 
edge  might  also  be  thickened  and  rounded,)  I  have  Little  doubt  the  present  brass  ring 
would  suffice. 


186  STOEMS   AFTEB   SHEARING. 

sheep,  those  of  particular  crosses,  etc.,  etc.  It  is  a  great 
convenience  to  have  even  permanently  numbered  sheep  also 
receive  this  annual  numbering  on  the  body,  so  that  they 
can  be  readily  distinguished  in  the  field,  without  catching, 
and  at  some  distance.  All  marks  should  be  put  on  near 'the 
spine  to  prevent  rubbing  before  the  paint  is  dry. 

STORMS  AFTER  SHEARING. —  It  is  remarkable  how  readily 
even  hardy  sheep  perish  if  exposed  to  very  cold  storms  soon 
after  shearing.  A  cold  ram-storm  accompanied  with  a  north- 
west wind,  occurred  in  Central  New  York  in  1860,  during  the 
height  of  shearing,  a  little  after  the  middle  of  June.  It  came 
on  a  day  which  had  opened  pleasantly,  and  many  farmers 
having  made  their  preparations  and  having  their  sheep  under 
cover,  shut  their  doors  and  kept  on  shearing.  Some,  with 
singular  thoughtlessness,  turned  the  new-shorn  sheep  out  as 
usual.  Probably  three  hundred  perished  within  a  circle  of  a 
few  miles.  In  one  case  within  my  knowledge,  a  wool  buyer 
approaching  a  barn  found  a  number  of  dead  and  dying  sheep 
lying  about.  On  entering  the  closed  barn  he  found  the  farmer 
and  his  assistants  shearing  away  in  high  glee  and  turning 
out  new  victims.  They  had  not  even  thought  to  look  out ! 

When  death  is  not  directly  produced  by  such  exposure, 
the  sheep  are  apt  to  contract  obstinate  catarrhs,  and  exhibit 
other  symptoms  of  unthriftiness  for  a  considerable  period 
afterwards  —  a  very  bad  way  of  commencing  the  summer, 
particularly  for  ewes  having  lambs.  Sheep  should  be  housed 
on  cold  nights  and  during  cold  storms  for  a  few  days  after 
shearing ;  and  in  default  of  conveniences  for  this,  they  should 
be  driven  into  dense  forests  and  to  situations  most  sheltered 
from  cold  winds. 

Very  early  shearing  should  be  considered  out  of  the 
question  in  climates  like  those  of  the  Northern  States,  without 
a  sufficient  supply  of  barns  and  sheds  to  shelter  every  sheep 
on  the  farm  in  case  of  necessity.  But,  in  truth,  the  early 
shorn  sheep  do  not  appear  to  suffer  as  much,  in  proportion, 
from  cold.  The  change  to  them  is  not  so  great  or  sudden  as 
when  cold  storms  follow  shearing  after  they  have  been 
sweltering  in  their  fleeces  in  hot  weather.  New-shorn  sheep 
rapidly  become  inured  to  much  colder  weather  than  they 
could  endure  at  first,  and  this  long  before  their  wool  has 
grown  enough  to  offer  them  any  additional  protection. 

SUN  -  SCALD. —  This  is  very  rare  now,  but  was  not  so  when 
Saxon  sheep  abounded  in  the  country.  It  was  the  fashion  to 


DESTROYING  TICKS.  187 

shear  them  very  close,  and  their  skins  were  so  thin  and 
delicate,  that  they  not  unfrequently  blistered,  and  became 
sore  under  the  scorching  sun.  Some  greased  these  sores  — 
others  gave  the  sheep  shade  and  paid  no  further  attention 
to  them. 

TICKS. —  A  very  ticky  flock  of  lambs  can  not  be  kept  in 
good  order,  and  when  they  become  poor  and  weak,  toward 
spring,  these  destructive  parasites  rapidly  reduce  them  lower 
and  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  save  their  lives.  Ticks  are 
found  on  all  sheep  in  neglected  flocks,  but  the  heat  and  cold, 
and  the  rubbing  and  biting  to  which  they  are  exposed  on  new 
shorn  sheep,  drive  them  to  take  shelter  in  the  long  wool  of 
the  lambs.  Here  they  are  so  readily  exterminated,  that  it  is 
as  much  of  a  disgrace  as  a  loss  to  the  flock-master  to  suffer 
them  to  remain  in  a  breeding  flock.  About  a  fortnight  after 
shearing,  every  lamb  should  be  dipped  in  a  decoction  of 


DIPPIKG  BOX. 

tobacco  strong  enough  to  kill  the  ticks.  The  last  point  can  be 
readily  settled  by  an  experiment  on  a  few  of  these  insects.  * 
The  decoction  is  poured  into  a  narrow,  deep  box,  which  has  an 
inclined  shelf  on  one  side,  covered  with  a  grate,  as  shown  in 
the  cut.  One  man  holds  the  lamb  by  the  fore-legs  with  one 

*  The  rule  used  to  be  to  boil  5  Ibs.  of  plug  tobacco  (after  chopping  it  fine)  or  10 
Ibs.  of  stems  for  a  hundred  late  Saxon  lambs.  The  larger,  earlier  and  longer  fleeced 
lambs  of  the  present  day  require  more  — say  $%  Ibs.  or  7  Ibs.  The  decoction  is  used 
cold  or  blood-warm.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  dilute  it  BO  that  it  will  fail  to  kill 
both  the  tick  and  its  eggs. 


188  DESTROYING   TICKS. 

hand,  and  with  the  other  clasps  the  nose  so  as  to  prevent  any 
of  the  fluid  from  entering  the  nostrils  or  mouth ;  another 
holds  the  lamb  by  the  hind -legs,  and  they  then  entirely 
immerse  it  in  the  fluid.  It  is  immediately  taken  out,  placed 
on  the  grate,  and  every  part  of  its  wool  carefully  squeezed. 
The  grated  shelf  conducts  the  liquor  back  into  the  box.  In 
default  of  a  dipping  box,  two  tubs  may  be  used.  After 
dipping  the  lamb  in  one  it  is  set  on  its  feet  in  the  empty  one, 
its  wool  squeezed  out,  and  the  liquor  returned  to  the  dipping 
tub  as  often  as  is  necessary. 

Mr.  Thome  informs  me  that  he  mixes  whale  oil  with  the 
tobacco  water,  until  the  latter  is  considerably  thickened  by  it ; 
and  he  thinks  this  renders  the  wash  beneficial  to  the  fleece. 
A  solution  of  arsenic  has  long  been  used  for  the  same 
purpose  in  Great  Britain,  and  at  the  present  time  it  is  vastly 
more  economical  than  tobacco.  Three  pounds  of  white 
arsenic,  in  powder,  are  dissolved  in  six  gallons  of  boiling 
water,  and  forty  gallons  of  cold  water  are  added.  The  whole 
is  well  stirred  with  a  stick,  and  the  lamb  is  then  immersed  pre- 
cisely in  the  same  way  as  in  the  tobacco  water.  The  remaining 
liquor,  containing  this  deadly  poison,  should  be  poured  where 
no  animal  can  get  to  it ;  and  the  dipping  box,  after  being  well 
rinsed,  should  be  put  in  a  safe  place  and  used  for  no  other 
purpose.  Arsenic  is  not  poisonous  to  the  hands,  if  they  are 
sound ;  and  even  if  the  skin  should  be  a  little  broken,  a  couple 
of  hours  exposure  to  the  above  described  solution  would  be 
attended  with  no  danger.  If  large  surfaces  of  the  hands 
were  denuded  of  skin,  an  injurious  absorption  of  the  arsenic 
might  take  place.  The  old  sheep  are  frequently  dipped  at 
the  same  time  with  lambs,  in  arsenic  water,  in  England. 

If  the  lambs  of  a  breeding  flock  are  properly  dipped,  but 
very  few  ticks  will  be  found  either  on  the  old  sheep  or  lambs 
at  the  next  shearing.  If  killed  in  the  same  way  on  the 
succeeding  years'  lambs,  they  will  generally  be  wholly 
exterminated  from  the  flock;  and  if  no  ticky  sheep  are 
subsequently  introduced  into  it,  and  it  is  kept  in  good  order, 
two  or  three  or  more  years  may  elapse  before  another  tick 
will  be  found  in  it. 

When  lambs  have  been  suffered  to  go  until  winter  without 
dipping,  and  are  covered  with  ticks,  arsenic  boiled  in  water, 
an  ounce  to  a  gallon,  is  poured  on  them ;  but  the  Mountain 
Shepherd's  Manual,  which  recommends  this,  adds : — "  In  this 
method,  however,  several  of  the  ticks  escape  by  crawling  to 
the  extremities  of  the  filaments."  The  common  mercurial 


SHORTENING   HORNS  —  MAGGOTS.  189 

ointment  of  the  shops,  mixed  with  seven  parts  of  lard,  is  an 
effectual  remedy.  It  is  rubbed  on  the  skin  in  furrows  made 
by  opening  the  wool,  and  should  be  most  freely  applied  to 
the  parts  which  are  especially  frequented  by  the  insects,  viz., 
the  neck  and  brisket.  Half  an  ounce  of  it  may  thus  be  used 
with  entire  safety  on  a  common  sized  Merino  lamb,  having 
the  ordinary  access  to  shelter,  in  any  but  exceedingly 
tempestuous  or  changeable  weather ;  and  this  would  be  more 
than  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  In  England,  where  mercurial 
ointment  is  frequently  used,  it  is  believed  to  have  a  generally 
salutary  effect  on  the  skin  and  on  the  growth  of  the  wool. 
Indeed,  it  is  often  applied  for  this  express  purpose,  about  the 
first  of  October,  to  lambs  which  were  dipped  at  shearing,  and 
which,  therefore,  have  no  vermin  on  them.  It  is  also  applied 
to  grown  sheep  for  the  same  purposes,  at  the  close  of  the 
coupling  season  —  2  Ibs.  to  twenty  head  —  or  1%  oz.  per  head. 
An  ounce  would  be  sufficient  on  a  grown  Merino. 

SHORTENING  HORNS,  ETC. — Every  horn  in  the  flock  should 
be  examined  at  marking  time.  When  those  of  the  ram  press 
upon  the  side  of  the  head  or  neck,  a  longitudinal  section 
should  be  sawed  from  the  inside  of  each,  so  as  to  relieve  the 
parts  of  their  contact  —  and  the  edges  should  be  rasped 
smooth.  Ewes'  horns  sometimes  grow  into  the  eyes  or  sides 
of  the  face.  They  should  be  sawed  off",  and  it  will  save  the 
trouble  of  repeating  the  operation  often  if  they  be  taken  off 
near  the  head.  By  far  the  best  saw  I  have  ever  used  for 
these  different  purposes  is  a  butcher's  bow  saw. 

MAGGOTS. —  New-shorn  rams  do  not  recognize  each  other 
at  once  after  shearing ;  and  those  often  fight  which  have  pre- 
viously run  kindly  together.  If  the  skin  of  the  head  becomes 
broken,  and  especially  if  blood  oozes  from  the  wound  to  a  part 
where  a  horn  presses  on  the  flesh,  or  where  the  shearer  has 
left  a  mass  of  wool  between  the  flesh  and  horn,  maggots  are 
promptly  generated,  and  they  soon  burrow  in  the  flesh  and 
produce  death  under  the  most  distressing  form.  Where  they 
have  entered  the  flesh  deeply  it  is  difficult  to  exterminate  them 
by  one  application  of  the  proper  substances — and  they  should 
be  carefully  re-examined  at  intervals  of  a  day  or  two, 
according  to  appearances.  Spirit  of  turpentine  will  kill  the 
maggots  it  comes  in  contact  with,  and  prevent  the  fly  from 
again  attacking  the  parts  until  its  effects  are  dissipated.  It  is 
common  also  to  daub  tar  over  the  wound.  Having  always 


190  CONFINING   RAMS. 

found  these  applications  sufficient,  I  have  not  experimented 
with  others.  Spirit  of  tar  is  said  to  be  more  effective  than 
turpentine.  A  flock-master  who  is  an  excellent  practical 
shepherd  writes  me  that  he  has  found  that  "two  ounces  of 
corrosive  sublimate  in  a  quart  of  any  spirits  that  will  dissolve 
it"  is  a  sure  remedy  in  such  cases ;  and  that  the  flies  will  not 
return  to  a  wound  to  which  it  has  been  applied.* 

Prevention  here,  as  in  most  other  cases,  is  much  the  best 
remedy.  There  is  no  excuse  for  leaving  a  horn  pressing  on 
the  head,  or  wool  under  the  horns.  Rams  should  be  smeared 
back  of  and  between  the  horns  immediately  after  shearing, 
with  tar  and  turpentine,  or  with  fish  oil,  to  repel  the  flies  in 
case  the  skin  becomes  broken.  A  ram  attacked  by  maggots 
will  soon  show  it  by  his  rapid  emaciation  and  by  his  agonized 
movements,  but  the  mischief  has  then  proceeded  to  a  serious 
extent.  When  rams  fight,  or  when  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
them  in  considerable  flocks  together,  they  should  be  frequently 
examined:  and  it  would  be  labor  well  spent  to  renew  the 
smearing  of  fish  oil  on  their  heads  once  a  fortnight  through 
the  months  of  July  and  August. 

Maggots  are  sometimes  generated  under  adhering  dung 
on  the  breech.  They  are  to  be  removed  and  the  same 
remedies  applied.  Maggots  in  the  feet  will  be  mentioned 
under  the  head  of  Hoof -Rot. 

CONFINING  RAMS. —  It  is  not  often  that  a  properly  trained 
ram  gives  much  trouble  by  leaping  good  fences  —  particularly 
if  he  is  allowed  one  or  two  companions.  But  it  is  not  very 
safe  to  allow  very  valuable  grown  rams  to  run  together, 
even  if  acquainted  and  ordinarily  peaceable.  Nobody  can 
tell  how  soon  a  sudden  and  fatal  battle  between  them  will 
occur.  A  choice  ram  should  only  be  mated  with  a  weather 
or  two,  or  after  lamb-weaning  with  some  ram  lambs.  I 
would  sooner,  if  necessary,  build  a  high  board  fence  round  a 
sufficient  enclosure  for  stock  rams,  than  hopple  or  clog  them. 
Hoppling,  when  resorted  to,  is  effected  by  fastening  a  leather 
strap  around  a  fore  and  a  hind  leg,  just  above  the  pastern 
joints,  leaving  the  legs  about  the  natural  distance  apart. 
The  ends  should  be  broad  enough  not  to  cut  into  the  flesh. 

*  My  informant  is  Mr.  Prosper  Eli  thorp,  of  Bridport,  Vermont.  He  considers  it 
much  more  effectual  than  turpentine  in  continuing  to  repel  the  attack  of  flies.  It  is 
soluble  in  two  and  a  third  parts  of  alcohol.  It  dissolves  in  about  20  parts  of  cold 
water,  and  in  three  of  boiling  water.  But  a  boiling  saturated  solution  deposits  it 
again  in  crystals  after  cooling.  Applied  externally  it  is  an  active  stimulant  and  caustic 
and  has  been  much  used  with  other  substances  in  applications  to  ill-conditioned  ulcers 


TRAINING   RAMS.  191 

Clogging  is  effected  by  fastening  a  billet  of  wood  to  one  fore- 
leg by  a  strap.  It  used  to  be  quite  customary  to  fasten  two 
rams  together  by  a  long  yoke  having  bows  like  an  ox  yoke. 
These  and  similar  modes  of  confinement  are  injurious  to  the 
sheep,  and  they  are  at*  best  insecure. 

TRAINING  RAMS. —  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  teach 
stock  rams  the  most  perfect  docility.  They  should  be  so 
tame  that  their  keeper  can  anywhere  walk  up  and  put  his 
hands  on  them.  They  should  be  taught  to  lead  by  the  halter 
and  to  stand  confined  by  the  halter  as  quietly  as  well  broken 
horses.  But  a  rope  should  never  be  put  around  their  heads, 
as  it  rubs  and  tears  off  the  wool.  An  iron  ring  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  should  be  attached  by  an  eye  to  a 
small  bolt  passing  through  the  thin  part  of  the  (left)  horn, 
confined  on  the  other  side  by  a  nut.  The  halter  should  be  a 
strap  of  leather  with  an  iron  snap,  so  that  it  can  be  readily 
fastened  to  or  detached  from  the  ring.  On  the  hornless 
English  ram  the  strap  must  buckle  around  the  neck. 

From  being  teazed  or  petted — or  from  natural  viciousness 
of  temper  —  a  ram  sometimes  acquires  a  habit  of  attacking 
strangers  who  enter  its  enclosure  —  and  occasionally  even 
its  keeper.  Another  will  strike  only  when  some  other  sheep 
in  the  flock  is  caught.  A  cross  ram  that  requires  constant 
watching,  is  not  only  an  annoyance  but  a  serious  danger  — 
for  the  full  blow  of  one  might  inflict  material  injury  and  even 
death.  Unless  of  great  value,  such  an  animal  should  be 
castrated  at  once.  If  kept,  he  should  have  a  blind  put  on 
him  —  that  is,  his  face  should  be  covered  and  his  line  of 
sight  forward  cut  off  by  a  flap  of  leather  in  front  of  his  face, 
secured  to  the  horns.  If  very  quarrelsome,  he  may  be 
entirely  blinded  by  tying  back  the  ends  of  the  flap  over  his 
eyes. 

A  ram  that  is  not  seriously  disposed  to  be  vicious,  is  often 
made  so  by  the  cowardice  of  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
meeting  him.  If  he  finds  his  attendant  is  afraid  of  him,  he 
will  soon  exert  his  mastery  to  the  utmost.  It  is  not  expedient 
to  court  an  issue,  but  as  soon  as  it  is  discovered  that  a  ram  is 
determined  to  test  the  question  of  mastery,  his  first  motion 
toward  an  attack  should  be  followed  by  carrying  the  war 
into  Africa.  He  should  be  punished  until  he  is  taught  the 
complete  and  absolute  superiority  of  his  attendant.* 

*  He  should  be  sprung  in  upon  with  a  good  tough  whip  —with  two  or  three  in  the 
left  hand  to  supply  the  place  of  broken  ones— and  such  a  storm  of  blows  r  ained  on 


192  FENCES SALT. 

FENCES. —  It  does  not  require  a  fence  of  more  than  very 
ordinary  height,  if  it  is  kept  constantly  in  repair,  for  the 
Merino  or  for  the  improved  English  breeds  of  sheep.  But  if 
portions  of  it  are  suffered  to  get  partly^down,  and  the  flock  pass 
over  these  lo*w  portions  a  few  times,  some  of  the  more  restless 
ones  learn  to  be  constantly  on  the  look-out  for  such  opportuni- 
ties to  escape;  and  they  will  gradually  leap  higher  and  higher, 
until  they  are  ready  to  scale  any  ordinary  fence  that  lies  in 
their  way.  Therefore,  the  fences  of  sheep  pastures  ought  in 
all  cases  to  be  thoroughly  repaired  before  turning  out  flocks 
in  the  spring;  and  they  should  be  frequently  examined 
through  the  season,  particularly  after  heavy  winds. 

If  sheep  are  to  be  driven  through  an  opening  in  the  fence, 
that  opening  should  be  extended  to  the  ground  —  so  as  never 
unnecessarily  to  make  them  acquainted  with  the  fact  that 
they  can  even  leap  over  two  rails.  One  "breachy"  sheep 
will  rapidly  teach  its  habits  to  the  whole  flock ;  and  it 
ought  to  be  considered  a  fraud  to  sell  one,  without  giving 
notice  of  its  vice.  Such  a  sheep  should  not  be  tolerated  in 
an  "  orderly "  flock,  for  a  single  day. 

Stone  walls  unless  very  high  and  smooth,  or  unless 
surmounted  by  rough  coping  stones,  set  up  on  edge,  do  not 
turn  sheep  as  well  as  rail  or  board  fences.  Sloping  sod  fences 
are  still  worse.  In  new  cleared  countries,  where  inclosures 
are  very  imperfectly  made  with  brush,  logs,  etc.,  poorly  kept 
sheep  sometimes  acquire  a  habit,  almost  equal  to  that  of 
swine,  of  crawling  through  every  opening. 

SALT. —  Salt  is  admitted  by  all  to  be  necessary  for  the 
health  of  sheep.  It  may  be  kept  in  the  fields,  under  cover, 
where  they  can  have  constant  access  to  it :  or  as  much  as  they 
will  eat  may  be  fed  to  them  once  a  week  on  the  grass.  It  is 
common  to  throw  it  in  handfulls  on  mossy  knolls,  on  tufts  of 
coarse  grass  not  eaten  down  by  sheep,  on  new  sprouting  bull 
thistles,  or  around  -the  roots  of  Canada  thistles,  or  other 
weeds  —  so  that  it  shall  call  in  the  aid  of  the  sheep  to 
extirpate  vegetable  enemies,  and  so  that,  if  any  of  it  is  left,  it 

his  head  that  he  stands  confused,  not  daring  to  open  his  eyes.  If  he  retreats  he 
should  be  pursued,  and  if  recently  shorn,  whipped  over  the  back  as  he  runs,  until 
thoroughly  cowed.  If  he  makes  his  attack  on  a  person  not  prepared  with  whips,  a 
few  rapid  and  hearty  kicks  in  the  face  will  generally  settle  the  contest.  If  he  charges, 
the  assailed  person  should  stand  firm  until  he  is  close  upon  him  an'd  then  he  should 
spring  suddenly  aside,  and  as  the  ram  rushes  past  dash  in  upon  him  and  so  punish 
him  that  he  will  have  no  desire  to  renew  the  onset.  If  after  one  sound  beating  he  is 
not  quelled  permanently,  or  for  a  considerable  period,  resort  should  at  once  be  had  to 
the  knife  or  the  blind. 


TAB,   SULPHUR,    ALUM,   ETC.  193 

shall  aid  in  the  same  particular,  and  in  preparing  the  soil  for 
better  products.  I  prefer  weekly  salting,  because  it  is  just  as 
well  for  the  health  of  the  sheep ;  because  it  keeps  them  tame 
and  ready  to  come  at  the  call;  and  because  it  compels  the 
owner  or  shepherd  to  see  them  once  a  week,  and  consequently  • 
to  observe  whether  anything  is  amiss  among  them.  He 
should  make  it  an  invariable  rule  to  count  them  if  practicable 
at  salting. 

TAR,  SULPHUR,  ALUM,  ETC. —  Some  persons  compel  healthy 
sheep  to  eat  these  substances  by  mixing  them  with  salt,  on 
the  supposition  that  like  salt,  they  tend  to  preserve  health  and 
increase  thrift.  There  is  no  proof  of  this ;  and  we  have  every 
reason  to  believe  that  nature  would  prompt  healthy  sheep  to 
eat  these  substances  as  it  does  salt,  were  they  in  like  manner 
necessary  to  the  animal  economy.  Tar  is  an  impure  turpen- 
tine, containing,  however,  some  different  principles,  of  which 
the  principal  medicinal  one  is  creosote.  Turpentine  taken 
internally  is  stimulant,  diuretic  and  in  large  doses  laxative. 
The  creosote,  which  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  tar  as  an 
external  application  to  old  sores,  has  been  used  internally  for 
various  human  maladies,*  but  it  is  one  of  the  last  things 
which  would  be  administered  in  a  state  of  perfect  health. 
Sulphur  is  laxative,  diaphoretic — i.  e.,  it  tends  to  produce  a 
greater  degree  of  perspiration  than  is  natural,  but  less  than  in 
sweating — and  resolvent,  or  in  other  words,  possesses  the 
power  of  repelling  or  dispersing  tumors.  Alum  is  astringent 
in  moderate  doses,  purgative  in  large,  and  does  not  possess  a 
property  Avhich  gives  it  a  place  among  the  internal  remedies 
of  sheep,  except  as  an  astringent,  and  there  it  is  inferior  to 
other  astringents  f  and  is  scarcely  in  use.  Of  what  use  can 
such  a  compound  as  this  be  to  a  healthy  animal? 

If  there  is  a  practice  in  sheep  or  any  other  animal 
husbandry,  which  more  than  all  others  lacks  the  shadow  of 
an  excuse,  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  that  of  cramming  drugs  or  any 
substances  which  nature  does  not  prompt  them  to  eat,  down 
the  throats  of  healthy  brutes,  under  the  idea  that  these  will, 
or  can,  make  them  healthier ;  or  under  the  wholly  mistaken 
idea  that  the  medicines  which  are  appropriate  to  particular 
diseases,  are  therefore  preventives  of  those  diseases,  or  even 
exert  a  tendency  in  that  direction.  On  the  contrary,  by  dis- 

*  Diabetes,  epilepsy,  neuralgia,  chronic  catarrh,  hysteria,  etc. 
t  Both  Youatt  and  Spooner  concur  in  this  opinion. 


194  WATER   IN   PASTURES. 

arranging  the  habitual  and  orderly  action  of 'the  functions, 
they  actually  increase  the  tendency  to  disease  ;  and  if  there  is 
any  prevailing  malady  at  the  time,  they,  as  it  wei*e,  open  the 
door  for  its  entrance.  To  what  an  innumerable  number  of 
domestic  animals  of  all  sorts  would  the  epitaph  of  the 
Spaniard  apply,  with  a  slight  change:  "I  was  well;  my 
owner  wanted  me  to  be  better,  and  I  am  here." 

Some  extremely  intelligent  men,  however,  attach  much 
virtue  to  the  articles  under  consideration,  in  combination  with 
salt,  as  a  general  remedy  for  certain  obscure  diseases.  A.  B. 
Allen,  Esq.,  formerly  editor  of  the  American  Agriculturist, 
writes  me  : — "  My  brother  Lewis  had  a  flock  of  about  two  hun- 
dred sheep  which  were  dying  off  with  what  was  supposed  to 
be  the  rot.  They  were  on  Grand  Island.  He  called  on  me  in 
despair,  said  he  had  done  everything  he  could  think  of,  and 
asked  if  I  could  help  him.  I  told  him  to  get  large  scows, 
load  them  with  sheep  and  send  them  to  my  farm,  nearly 
opposite  to  him  on  the  main  land.  I  then  took  long  troughs 
made  of  two  narrow  boards  put  together  in  the  form  of  a  V. 
Into  these  I  poured  tar  about  three  inches  deep ;  then  I 
sprinkled  sulphur  profusely ;  then  salt  and  pulverized  alum 
sparingly.  Then  I  took  each  sheep  and  examined  its  feet 
thoroughly.  If  in  the  least  diseased,  I  washed  the  feet  clean 
with  soap  suds  and  applied  the  above  mixture  to  them.  The 
sheep  would  come  to  these  troughs  many  times  per  day, 
just  lick  a  little  and  go  away.  I  believe  I  also  placed  some 
boards  before  and  behind  the  troughs  (for  they  stood  in  an 
open  position)  smeared  with  the  above,  so  that  they  would  be 
obliged  to  tread  in  the  mixture  when  they  went  to  the 
troughs.  The  tar,  etc.,  was  renewed  as  often  as  was 
necessary,  for  several  weeks.  The  result  was  that  only  three 
or  four  sheep  died  after  this :  all  the  rest  were  soon  restored 
to  health,  and  in  six  weeks  or  so,  my  brother  had  the  pleasure 
of  selling  as  fine  and  healthy  a  fat  flock  to  the  butchers  as 
was  seen  in  Buffalo  that  season.  I  presume  change  of 
pastures  and  air  were  beneficial  to  my  brother's  flock,  but  let 
me  tell  you  that  there  is  nothing  like  plenty  of  tar,  sulphur, 
salt  and  a  modicum  of  pulverized  alum  to  keep  sheep  in  good 
health,  especially  on  heavy  soils,  low  grounds,  and  when  the 
water  is  not  over  pure  and  abundant." 

WATER  IN  PASTURES. —  Water  is  not  indispensable  in 
summer  pastures,  but  it  is  unquestionably  beneficial  to  all 
sheep,  and  highly  important  for  ewes  suckling  lambs.  It  will 


SHADE  —  HOUSING   SHEEP   IN   SUMMER.  195 

do  at  any  time  in  the  summer  to  change  sheep  from  a  dry 
to  a  watered  field  or  range ;  but  the  reverse  of  this  I  have 
always  found  injurious,  particularly  to  nursing  ewes  and 
their  lambs. 

SHADE  IN  PASTURES. —  The  eagerness  with  which  sheep 
seek  shade  from  the  full  glare  of  the  summer  sun,  is  of  itself 
a  sufficient  proof  of  its  utility.  Occasional  trees  or  clumps  of 
trees  in  each  pasture  afford  the  most  natural  shade.  Where 
these  and  all  others  (except  those  made  by  open  rail  fences,) 
are  lacking,  I  believe  it  would  repay  the  flock-master  to  form 
artificial  ones  by  the  cheapest  means  within  his  reach ;  and 
planting  at  the  same  time  young,  rapidly  growing  shade  trees, 
for  the  future,  would  be  a  judicious  and  economical  measure. 

HOUSING  SHEEP  IN  SUMMER. —  The  comparatively  small, 
choice,  high-priced  breeding  flocks  of  Merinos  are  frequently, 
as  has  already  been  mentioned,  housed  from  all  summer  rain- 
storms. They  are  put  up  nights  when  there  is  any  prospect 
of  rain,  and  some  put  them  up  nights  habitually  after  the 
lapse  of  a  few  weeks  after  shearing.  The  object  is  to  preserve 
the  yolk  in  the  wool,  and  thereby  obtain  color  and  weight 
of  fleece. 

Sheltering  in  warm  weather  is  unnecessary,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  sheep,  as  in  that  of  all  other  animals,  it  is  the 
tendency  of  habitual  non-exposure  to  beget  an  inability  to 
withstand  exposure.  But  the  Merino  is  not  only  an  exceed- 
ingly hardy  animal,  but  one  which  possesses  a  remarkable 
power  of  adapting  itself  to  different  circumstances.  I  have 
repeatedly  bought  sheep  out  of  these  summer  housed  flocks, 
and  found  no  difficulty  whatever  in  accustoming  them  to 
ordinary  treatment.  Housing  in  summer  is  not,  then,  of 
itself  of  much  consequence,  if  it  and  its  effects  are,  as  I 
now  believe  them  to  be,  universally  understood.  This  being 
the  case  it  would  be  binding  the  sheep  breeder  by  more 
stringent  restrictions  than  we  impose  on  other  breeders,  if 
public  opinion  refused  to  tolerate  the  practice.  * 

*  I  expressed  different  views  in  my  Report  on  Fine -Wool  Husbandry,  1862. 
While  I  stated  that  the  leading  breeders  were  guilty  of  no  deception  in  this  particular, 
because  they  avowed  their  treatment  and  their  motives  for  it,  I  urged  that  it  led  to 
disappointments  on  the  part  of  the  buyer,  and  that  it  was  a  purely  unnecessary  waste 
of  labor  and  capital.  Further  information  has  convinced  me  that  the  effect  of  summer 
housing  sheep  is  about  as  generally  understood  among  sheep  men.  as  the  effect  of 
stabling  and  currying  horses  is  understood  among  horsemen.  And  the  animals  sub- 
jected to  it  or  not  subjected  to  it  can  be  as  readily  distinguished  from  each  other,  in 
the  fall,  when  the  selling  of  breeding  sheep  commences.  It  is  a  waste  of  time;  but 
why  shall  not  the  sheep  breeder  be  permitted  to  waste  las  time  aa  well  as  the  cattle 


196  PAMPERING   SHEEP. 

PAMPERING. —  But  when  housing  is  connected  with 
pampering,  with  a  high  and  forced  system  of  feeding,  the 
case  is  different.  To  make  show  sheep,  to  make  rams 
saleable,  to  stimulate  an  unnatural  growth  of  wool  and 
secretion  of  yolk,  and  thus  produce  what  are  termed  "  brag 
fleeces" — to  cover  up  defects  of  carcass,  to  convey  false 
impressions  as  to  the  natural  size  and  substance  of  the  animal 
—  some  persons  feed  their  sheep  a  good  portion  of  the  summer 
and  all  winter,  as  much  as  they  can  safely  get  them  to  eat 
of  the  richest  feed.  This  treatment  is  not  often  given  to 
breeding  ewes,  at  least  in  its  full  extent,  for  it  materially 
interferes  with  their  own  safety  in  lambing,  and  the  lambs 
are  small,  weak  and  difficult  to  raise.  But  to  young 
ewes  kept  for  sale  and  for  show  sheep,  and  to  rams  kept  for 
sale,  it  is  applied  to  the  fullest  extent.  Thus  a  good  sized 
Merino  ram  is  made  to  produce  three  or  four  more  pounds, 
and  a  good  sized  ewe  one  or  two  more  pounds,  of  wool  and 
yolk,  than  they  would  if  only  kept  in  good  ordinary  condition. 

But  he  who  buys  such  sheep  (for  other  purposes  than 
slaughtering)  —  particularly  if  they  are  descended  from 
several  generations  of  ancestors  which  have  been  pampered 
in  the  same  way  —  buys  a  spent  hot -bed.  It  never  will 
produce  again  the  monster  fleece  which  tempted  him  to  give 
a  monster  price  for  it.  If  its  feed  is  kept  up,  it  has  little 
value  for  breeding  purposes ;  if  its  feed  is  taken  off,  it  runs 
down,  becomes  debilitated  and  incapable  of  withstanding 
ordinary  hardships,  is  subject  to  every  malady,  and  succumbs 
to  the  first  one.  This  was  the  case  with  that  tribe  of  monster 
French  rams  which  first  spread  over  this  country,  and  died 
within  a  year  like  mushrooms  —  ruining  the  reputation  of  the 
breed.  Some  of  them  had  been  so  thoroughly  pampered, 
that  they  could  not  sustain  themselves  on  good  pasturage, 
and  perished  almost  without  disease,  of  mere  debility.  This 
mode  of  preparing  breeding  sheep  for  sale  is  not  a  legal 
fraud ;  1>ut  it  is  dishonest  and  dishonorable  by  whomsoever  it 
may  be  practiced. 

No  one  will  deny  that  every  man  has  a  right  to  keep  his 
sheep  well,  whether  he  proposes  to  sell  them  or  not.  Good 
keeping  may  be  pronounced  the  custom  of  all  breeders.  I 
am  not  sure,  indeed,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  certain 

breeder,  the  horse  breeder,  and  the  breeder  of  every  other  description  ?  The  world 
has  agreed  to  find  fault  with  no  class  of  producers  for  "  putting  the  best  side  out," 
provided  no  deception  is  practiced  and  no  injury  done  to  the  thing  produced  in  thus 
fitting  it  for  market. 


PAMPERING   SHEEP.  197 

improvements.  For  example,  size  cannot  be  increased,  nor 
even  kept  up  without  abundant  feed.  The  highest  bred 
Short -Horn  dwindles  rapidly  in  size  in  each  succeeding 
generation  —  however  strong  the  individual  and  family 
tendency  to  size  —  if  put  on  thin  upland  pasturage  and  fed 
only  hay  in  winter.  I  do  not  suppose  that  Mr.  Ellman  could 
ever  have  raised  the  flat  rib  of  the  unimproved  South  Down 
to  its  present  almost  horizontal  spring  from  the  back-bone, 
had  he  suifered  his  sheep  to  remain  ill -fed  and  empty  — 
because,  while  it  is  true  that  the  viscera  adapt  their  size  to 
the  inclosing  structures,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  bony  and 
muscular  inclosing  structures  adapt  their  size  and  shape  to  the 
viscera.  Whatever  we  may  do,  nature  insists  on  and  enforces 
harmony ! 

Good  keep  may  be  pronounced  necessary  to  improvement 
in  other  particulars  :  but  while  the  fire  warms  and  cheers  and 
strengthens,  the  conflagration  destroys !  Knaves  are  generally 
very  much  puzzled  to  ascertain,  in  all  such  cases,  where  the 
good  agency  ends  and  the  bad  one  begins.  Men  of  common 
sense,  common  experience,  and  common  honesty,  labor  under 
no  such  difficulties.  They  can  decide  at  once  between  good 
keep  and  destructive  pampering. 


CHAPTER   XVIH. 

PALL    MANAGEMENT. 

WEANING     AND   FALL     FEEDING     LAMBS SHELTERING     LAMBS 

IN   FALL FALL  FEEDING  AND  SHELTERING  BREEDING  EWES 

—  SELECTING    EWES    FOR    THE     RAM COUPLING PERIOD 

OF  GESTATION — MANAGEMENT  OF  RAMS  DURING  COUPLING 

DIVIDING   FLOCKS   FOR   WINTER. 

WEANING  AND  FALL  FEEDING  LAMBS. —  Lambs  of  all 
breeds  should  be  weaned  at  about  four  months  old ;  and  if 
drouth  or  other  circumstances  have  occasioned  a  particular 
scarcity  of  pasturage  for  the  lambs  and  their  dams,  and  the 
former  can  be  put  on  good  feed  by  separating  them,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  take  off  the  lambs  three  or  even  four  weeks 
earlier.  The  somewhat  prevalent  idea  that  it  is  improper  to 
wean  them  in  "dog  days,"  has' not  a  particle  of  foundation. 
But  whatever  the  period  of  weaning,  sweet,  tender  pasturage 
is  indispensable  for  them.  New  seeded  stubbles  and  the 
rowen  of  meadows  are  usually  reserved  for  them  in  this 
country.  But  many  flock-masters  prefer  rested  pastures  — 
i.  e.,  those  which,  after  being  fed  close,  are  cleared  of  stock 
and  allowed  to  spring  up  fresh.  A  few  of  our  breeders  of 
English  sheep  fold  their  ram  lambs  on  rape. 

The  modes  of  weaning  and  fall  feeding  lambs  now 
practiced  in  England  may  interest  the  breeders  of  English 
sheep  in  this  country.  The  following  directions  are  from  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society's  prize  essay  on  the  Management 
of  Sheep,  written  by  Mr.  Robert  Smith,  of  Burley,  1847 : 

"  Lambs  should  never  be  placed  upon  rested  summer-eaten 
clover  pastures,  however  tempting  they  may  appear,  as  they 
invariably  cause  scouring,  fever  and  other  severe  ailments. 
Old  grass,  clover,  or  grass-eddish  [after-math]  is  preferable 
until  the  autumn  quarter  commences,  which  is  considered  an 
important  one,  as  much  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which 
the  lambs  are  started,  or  taught  to  eat  their  winter  feed.  In 


WEANING   AND   FALL,   FEEDING.  199 

the  middle  of  September  the  lambs  are  placed  in  moderate 
lots  upon  grass  or  seeds,  as,  from  the  domestic  habits  peculiar 
to  the  race,  they  are  fond  of  picking  their  food  at  this  season 
of  the  year,  cabbages  being  thrown  to  them  upon  the  pastures, 
or  cut  for  them  in  troughs :  after  a  short  time  a  few  white 
turnips  are  mixed  with  them  as  a  preparation  for  the  winter. 
As  October  advances  they  are  placed  upon  the  common  or 
white  turnips.  Some  breeders  mix  a  little  cole  seed  in  the 
first  sowing,  wThich  is  an  excellent  plan.  After  a  short  time 
the  wether  lambs  are  given  ^  Ib.  of  oil  cake,  or  corn  to  that 
value,  each  per  day ;  at  Christmas  they  are  placed  upon  the 
Swedes  which  are  cut  for  them,  as  also  the  white  ones  upon 
bad  layer." 

In  the  "  commended  essay"  *  of  Mr.  T.  E.  Pawlett,  on  the 
same  subject,  1847,  occur  the  following  statements: — "I  have 
found  lambs  to  thrive  much  better  on  old  keeping  —  as  red 
clover,  sanfoin,  or  grass  —  than  upon  what  are  termed 
eddishes ;  yet  I  must  state  that  old  white  clover,  or  trefoil 
stubbles,  are,  when  they  are  seeded  and  have  become  dry,  the 
very  worst  of  all  kinds  of  food  for  young  lambs.  If,  however, 
proper  food  cannot  be  provided  for  them,  they  should  often 
have  their  pastures  changed  to  keep  them  healthy,  when  a 
little  oil  cake  or  a  few  split  peas  or  beans  (one  pint  a  day 
among  four  lambs,)  would  do  them  no  harm.  Having  proved 
by  many  experiments  the  advantages  of  putting  young  lambs, 
after  weaning,  upon  old  keeping  —  namely,  pastures  that  have 
been  stocked  from  the  commencement  of  the  spring  —  over 
eddishes  or  pastures  that  have  been  previously  mown  the 
same  season,  I  will  state  one  experiment  as  a  sample  of  the 
rest.  In  the  year  1834,  I  put  a  lot  of  lambs  on  some  old 
sanfoin,  having  a  few  tares  carried  to  them,  and  another  lot  of 
lambs  were  put  on  young  sanfoin,  or  an  eddish  which  had 
grown  to  a  pasture ;  these,  also,  had  some  tares.  Each  lot 
was  weighed  at  the  commencement,  and  again  at  the  end  of 
the  trial: 


"  Gain   in  weight  on  a  lot  of  lambs  fed  on  old  sanfoin,  from  July  10  to  August 

10,  each  on  the  average,.. 14&  Ibs 

Lambg  fed  on  sanfoin  eddish,  gained  each  in  the  same  time, 8>£  Ib3 

Difference, 6  Ibs." 

The  moist,  mild  climate  and  constant  rain,  in  England, 
affect  pastures  very  differently  from  the  scorching  and  often 

*  This  is  headed  as  follows :—"  A  Commended  Essay,  written  in  competition  for 
the  premium  awarded  to  Mr.  E.  Smith,  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1847."  Mr. 
Pawlett  is  known  as  a  distinguished  breeder  of  Leicesters. 


200  WEANING    AND    FALL   FEEDING. 

very  dry  summers  of  the  United  States  ;  and  as  a  general 
thing  I  have  found  good  fresh  rowen  or  after -math  on 
meadows,  or  the  new  seeded  grass  in  grain  stubbles,  better 
feed  for  lambs  than  rested  pastures,  unless  the  latter  have 
been  seeded  the  same  or  the  previous  year,  and  the  grass  on 
them  is  tender  and  fresh. 

Both  of  the  above  quotations,  however,  teach  one  valuable 
lesson  to  those  who  have  not  already  learned  it  —  the  high 
importance  of  giving  lambs  generous  keep  from  the  time 
of  weaning  until  winter  in  order  that  they  may  continue 
growing  rapidly  during  that  entire  period.  If  by  poor  keep 
or  any  other  cause,  their  growth  is  seriously  arrested,  and 
instead  of  the  rounded  plumpness  of  thrifty  lambs,  they  put 
on  the  dried-up  appearance  of  "  little  old  sheep  "  —  the  poorer 
ones  are  likely  to  perish  outright  before  the  close  of  winter ; 
and  by  no  amount  of  care  or  feed  can  the  others  be  brought  to 
the  next  spring  equal  with  lambs  which  receive  only  common 
feed  in  winter,  but  which  were  kept  properly  through  the  fall 
months. 

Lambs,  when  separated  from  their  dams  for  weaning, 
should,  if  the  feed  is  good  enough,  be  left  for  a  few  days  in 
the  field  where  the  flock  has  been  previously  kept— their  dams 
being  taken  away  to  a  new  one.  The  lambs  are  more 
contented  and  make  fewer  efforts  to  escape  when  thus  familiar 
with  the  place.  The  two  fields  should  be  so  far  apart  that 
they  cannot  hear  each  others'  bleating.  If  this  is  imprac- 
ticable, the  fence  should  be  carefully  stopped,  for  if  a  few 
lambs  crawl  through  and  again  reach  their  dams,  they  will  not 
give  up  renewing  their  efforts  to  escape  and  communicating 
their  own  restlessness  to  the  others,  for  twice  the  usual  weaning 
period.  Two  or  three  escapes  establish  a  habit  which  it  is 
difficult  to  overcome. 

It  is  a  great  advantage  to  put  two  or  three  very  tame  old 
crones  which  have  not  lambs  of  their  own,  or  a  lead  wether, 
among  the  lambs,  to  teach  them  to  come  at  the  call ;  and  to 
lead  them  up  to,  and  set  them  the  example  of  eating  salt, 
trough  -  feed,  etc. 

The  dams  should  be  put  on  the  dryest  feed  on  the  farm  for 
a  fortnight  after  separation,  to  stop  their  flow  of  milk.  The 
udders  of  some  of  them  may  require  to  be  milked  out  once  or 
twice,  and  if  these  exhibit  much  redness  and  warmth,  they 
should  be  bathed  as  recommended  at  page  158.  Smearing 
the  udders  with  a  thick,  pasty  mixture  of  soap  and  water, 
after  a  previous  washing  in  cold  water,  is  sometimes  resorted 


SHELTERING    LAMBS    IN   FALL.  201 

to.  I  have  already  sufficiently  adverted  to  the  high  import- 
ance of  preserving  the  udders  of  breeding  ewes  in  a  perfectly 
normal  condition.  When  entirely  dried  off,  they  should  be 
put  on  good  feed  to  get  into  condition  for  winter. 

As  soon  as  the  fall  frosts  have  touched  the  grass,  it  is 
highly  beneficial — nay,  it  is  indispensable  in  good  sheep 
farming — to  give  lambs  some  kind  of  artificial  feed.  Turnips 
are  (I  am  sorry  to  say,)  but  little  raised  among  the  great  mass 
of  our  sheep  farmers,  and  rape  and  cabbage  are  nearly 
unknown  as  field  crops.  Any  of  these  would  be  vastly 
cheaper  than  grain  feed ;  but  in  default  of  them,  grain  feed 
should  be  given.  At  first  a  little  sprinkling  of  oats,  shorts, 
bran  or  the  like  should  be  put  once  a  day  in  troughs,  in  their 
pasture.  By  keeping  them  from  salt  on  other  occasions  and 
salting  their  trough  feed  very  slightly,  they,  led  up  by  the 
crones,  will  first  nibble  at  and  then  eat  it ;  and  when  even  a 
few  do  this,  the  rest  will  rapidly  follow  their  example.  A 
spoonful  of  oats  a  head  is  more  than  enough  to  begin  with ; 
and  when  they  get  well  to  eating,  this  may  be  gradually 
increased  to  half  a  gill  per  head — and  before  winter  to  a  gill, 
or  to  its  equvalent  in  shorts,  bran,  or  other  grain.  Bran 
and  shorts,  or  shorts  and  oats,  mixed  half-and-half,  are 
proverbially  good  feed  for  lambs.  An  addition  of  turnips  to 
these  would  leave  nothing  to  desire.  Indian  corn,  in  despite 
of  the  fears  entertained  of  it  by  some  persons,  for  that  object, 
is  also  an  excellent  lamb  feed ;  but  it  must  be  given  more 
sparingly.  A  bushel  of  it  is  equivalent  to  its  weight  in 
oats.* 

SHELTERING  LAMBS  IN  FALL. —  Sheltering  lambs  from  the 
heavy,  cold  rain-storms  which  fall  for  a  month  or  a  month 
and  a  half  before  the  setting  in  of  winter,  in  our  northern 
latitudes,  is  now  beginning  to  be  practiced  by  all  the  best 
flock-masters ;  and  when  the  ground  becomes  wet  and  cold, 
and  frequently  freezes,  toward  the  close  of  autumn  they  should 
also  be  regularly  housed  every  night.  It  is  well  to  have 
racks  of  hay  ready  for  them  in  their  stables ;  and  it  is  very 
easy  to  learn  them  to  eat  grain,  etc.,  there.  If  it  is  regularly 
placed  in  the  troughs  over  night,  with  a  very  light  dusting  of 
salt,  as  before  mentioned,  but  two  or  three  days  will  elapse 
before  it  will  be  regularly  and  entirely  consumed.  Getting 

*  A  bushel  of  corn  weighs  68  Ibs.,  a  bushel  oats  32  Ibs.,  by  the  rule  established  in 
New  York. 

9* 


202  FALL   TREATMENT   OF    BREEDING    EWES. 

the  lambs  accustomed  to  the  stables  before  winter,  is  in  itself 
no  inconsiderable  advantage. 

FALL  FEEDING  AND  SHELTERING  BREEDING  EWES. —  It  is 
a  common  and  very  truthful  saying  among  observing  flock- 
masters,  that  "a  sheep  well  summered  is  half  wintered." 
Breeding  ewes  should  be  brought  into  good  condition  by  the 
time  the  first  killing  frosts  occur.  After  that,  they  should  not 
be  suffered  to  fall  off*,  but  be  kept  rather  improving  by  feeding 
them,  if  the  condition  of  the  pastures  render  it  necessary,  with 
pumpkins,  turnip-tops,  and  any  other  perishable  green  feed  on 
the  farm  —  and  after  these  are  exhausted,  with  turnips.  If 
some  of  the  oldest  and  youngest  ewes  remain  thin,  they 
should  be  separated  from  the  others  and  fed  rather  better  — 
grain  not  being  withheld,  if  it  is  necessary  to  bring  them 
into  plump  condition  before  winter.  Shelter  from  late,  cold 
storms,  though  not  as  important  as  in  the  case  ol  lambs, 
is  very  desirable,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  with  persons 
possessing  convenient  and  commodious  sheep  stables,  it  will 
well  pay  for  the  trouble  to  put  up  breeding  ewes  nights 
whenever  the  weather  is  raw  and  the  ground  wet  and  cold.  * 
In  default  of  artificial  green  feed,  hay  or  corn  stalks  should  be 
regularly  fed  to  sheep  —  once  or  twice  a  day,  according  to 
circumstances  —  as  the  pasturage  becomes  insufficient  for 
their  full  support. 

A  singular  idea  prevails  among  a  class  of  our  farmers,  in 
regard  to  fall  feeding  sheep,  which  has  been  handed  down 
from  those  days  when  the  two  dozen  gaunt,  "native"  sheep 
which  belonged  to  a  farm  and  which  roamed  nearly  as 
unrestrained  as  wild  deer  through  field  and  forest,  did  not 
"  come  in  to  the  barn  "  before  the  groraid  was  covered  with 
snow.  In  coppices,  on  briars,  and  in  swamps  where  the 
water  kept  the  snow  dissolved  —  and  by  digging  in  the 
fields  —  they  even  found  subsistence  until  the  snow  became 
deep  and  so  packed  and  crusted  by  sun  and  wind  as  to  prevent 
their  reaching  the  ground.  They  then  retreated  to  the  barn- 
yard, usually  lank  enough!  But  every  farmer  knows  the 
immense  difference  whether  in  the  fields  in  summer,  or  in  the 

*  My  own  flocks  have  generally  been  too  large  and  spread  over  too  much  surface, 
to  render  housing  from  storms  practicable  until  the  sheep  are  brought  into  their 
winter  quarters  ;  and  if  well  kept,  they  certainly  do  well  enough  without  it.  But  I 
housed  a  flock  of  lambs  last  fall,  and  I  thought  the  benefit  was  very  obvious.  I  have 
repeatedly  observed  the  same  thing  in  other  men's  flocks  — particularly  in  Vermont. 
In  that  State,  fall  housing  is  almost  as  common,  and  is  regarded  as  almost  as  indispen- 
sable, &a  winter  housing.  This  is  probably  somewhat  a  question  of  climate. 


FALL  TREATMENT   OP   BREEDING   EWES.  203 

stable  or  barn-yard  in  winter,  between  recruiting  up  and 
getting  into  condition  two  dozen,  or  two  hundred  lean, 
reduced  sheep.  The  little  handful  of  "natives"  choosing 
every  morsel  of  their  food  over  one  or  two  hundred  acres  of 
land,  through  the  summer,  had  high  condition  to  fall  back  on, 
in  the  pinch  of  the  early  winter  ;  and  when  put  into  the  barn- 
yards with  the  cattle  and  young  horses,  tiiey  still  chose  all  the 
best  morsels  of  the  hay  —  robbing  the  latter  animals  —  so 
that  they  not  only  made  a  shift  to  live,  but  usually  got  round 
to  the  next  spring  in  tolerable  order.  True,  when  let  out  to 
grass  again,  their  condition  began  to  change  so  rapidly  that 
they  frequently  shed  off  nearly  all  their  wool  —  so  that  many 
of  them  had  not  half  a  pound  a  piece  at  shearing  ;  and  those 
which  escaped  this  were  very  likely  to  have  their  fleeces  half 
ruined  by  cotting.  But  what  of  all  this  ?  This  was  the  way 
things  were  done  in  those  days  ! 

Brought  up  under  such  traditions,  many  of  our  older 
farmers  who  consider  it  highly  essential  as  Avell  as  profitable 
to  give  their  cows,  horses  and  other  animals,  artificial  and 
extra  feed  a  month  before  the  winter  sets  in,  consider  every 
pound  of  fodder  bestowed  on  sheep  at  that  time,  so  much 
taken  from  the  profits  which  these  animals  are  bound,  under 
all  circumstances,  to  yield  to  their  owners  —  a  total  loss  ! 
A  more  absurd  and  pernicious  notion  could  not  prevail.  If 
sheep  could  withstand  the  effects  of  such  treatment  with  as 
little  danger  to  life  as  the  horse  or  cow,  it  would  still  occasion 
a  much  greater  proportionable  loss  in  their  products.*  But 
they  can  not.  The  former  are  capable  of  being  raised  at  any 
period  of  the  year,  from  the  lowest  condition  of  leanness, 
without  danger.  The  muscular  and  vascular  systems  of  the 
sheep  are  so  much  weaker,  that  if  they  become  reduced  below 
a  certain  point  in  winter  —  and  if  they  herded  together  in 
considerable  numbers  —  their  restoration  to  good  condition  is 
always  difficult  and  doubtful,  and,  in  unfavorable  winters, 
impracticable.  Their  progress  thenceforth  is  frequently  about 
as  follows  :  If  fed  liberally  with  grain,  their  appetites  become 


poor  and  capricious,  or    f  they  eat  freely  it  is  followed  by 

o  "petting"  or  enervating  system  of  treatment.  I  have  not  five  times 
ears  fed  hay  or  grain,  or  brought  in  the  body  of  my  store  sheep  from 
pastures,  before  the  fall  of  snow  —  which  generally  occurs  in  this 
from  the  first  of  December.  But  I  should  have  done  it  in  all  cases,  if 


*  I  urge  no  "petting"  or  enervating  system  of  treatment.    I  have  not  five  times 
within  thirty  years  fed  ha 
their  summer 

climate  not  far  . 

they  had  not  sufficient  feed  in  their  pastures.  In  this  respect  I  would  put  them  on 
precisely  the  same  footing  with  cows  and  horses.  And  I  would  sooner  limit  the  feed 
of  either  of  them  in  the  winter,  than  during  the  month  preceding  winter.  Unless  the 
fall  feed  was  unusually  abundant  and  good,  I  have  always  fed  my  lambs  and  crones 
pumpkins,  turnip  tops,  grain,  etc.,  and  a  little  hay  as  soon  as  they  would  eat  it. 


204  FALL   FEEDING   OF   BREEDING   EWES. 

obstinate  and  enfeebling  diarrheas.  Low,  obscure  forms  of 
disease  seem  to  attack  them  and  become  chronic.  The 
strength  of  the  lambs  and  of  the  very  old  sheep,  rapidly 
fails.  They  scarcely  move  about.  The  skin  around  the  eyes 
becomes  bloodless.  The  eyes  lose  their  bright,  alert  look, 
and  yellow,  waxy  matter  collects  about  and  under  them.  A 
discharge  frequently  commences  from  the  nose  —  perhaps  the 
result  of  a  cold,  but  how  or  when  taken  it  is  frequently 
difficult  to  say.  The  viscid  mucus  dries  about  the  nostrils  so 
that  they  cannot  breathe  freely  without  its  removal.  The 
evacuations  become  dark  colored,  viscid,  and  have  an  offensive 
odor.  The  strength  fails  more  rapidly;  the  sheep  becomes 
unable  to  rise  without  assistance  ;  and  it  falls  when  jostled  to 
the  least  degree  by  its  associates.  It  will  taste  a  few  morsels 
of  choice  hay,  but  generally  the  appetite  is  nearly  gone. 
Some,  however,  will  eat  grain  pretty  freely  to  the  last. 
Finally,  it  becomes  unable  to  stand,  and  after  reaching  this 
stage,  it  usually  lingers  along  from  two  or  three  days  to  a 
week,  and  then,  emaciated,  covered  with  filth  behind,  and 
emitting  a  disgusting  fetor,  it  perishes  miserably. 

Post  mortem  examination  shows  that  this  is  not  the  rot  of 
Europe.  Some  American  flock-masters  term  it  the  "  hunger 
rot."  If  to  this  could  be  added  something  to  express  the  fact 
that  the  hunger  which  engenders  it,  usually  occurs  in  the  fall, 
before  the  setting  in  of  winter,  it  would  be  an  admirably 
descriptive  name !  *  It  is  true,  that  entering  the  winter  poor 
does  not  prove  equally  destructive  in  all  instances.  Its  effects 
doubtless  may  be  materially  enhanced  or  diminished  by  the 
regularity  and  excellence  of  the  winter  management,  the  nice 
condition  of  the  feed,  etc.,  or  the  reverse  of  these  conditions. 
And  the  character  of  the  winter  itself  exerts  a  very  marked 
influence.  Sheep  thrive  best  when  the  temperature  is  compar- 
atively steady — no  matter  how  cold.  A  cold,  blustering, 
stormy  winter  is  preferable  to  one  of  greatly  milder  tempera- 
ture, if  its  fluctuations  are  frequent  and  great  —  storm  and 
thaw,  rapidly  succeeding  to  each  other.  There  comes 
occasionally  what  farmers  term  a  "dying  winter,"  when 
almost  any  adverse  conditions  become  fatal  —  and  when 
almost  every  disorder  assumes  an  epizootic,  malignant  and 
fatal  type. 

Certain  specific,  diseases,  like  cold,  catarrh,  pulmonary 
affections,  diarrheai  -dysentery,  etc. —  the  most  common  ones 

*  It  might  not  inappropriately  be  termed  the  "fall-hunger  rot." 


SELECTING   EWES   FOR  THE    BAM.  205 

which  are  of  a  dangerous  description  —  are  far  more  liable  to 
attack  sheep  when  in  low  condition.  And  it  is  surprising 
with  what  destructive  effect  ticks  will  work  on  very  poor 
sheep  and  lambs.  The  latter  are  sometimes  literally  depleted 
and  irritated  to  death  by  their  blood  sucking. 

I  have  specially  and  strenuously  urged  the  point  of 
bringing  sheep  into  the  winter  in  good  condition,  because  it 
admits  of  no  doubt  that  this,  far  more  than  any  other  one 
item  of  management,  constitutes  the  sheet  anchor  of  all 
successful  sheep  farming. 

There  is  a  point  of  importance  which  I  have  overlooked 
in  the  preceding  statements.  A  flock  of  ewes  which  are  in 
inferior  condition,  and  especially  if  they  are  at  the  time 
running  down,  will  not  take  the  ram  as  readily  as  a  fleshy, 
thriving  flock.  It  will  take  six  or  seven  weeks  to  get  the 
bulk  of  them  served,  and  then  a  number  of  them  will  "  miss," 
especially  if  the  weather  is  very  cold.  A  high-conditioned 
flock  is  often  served  in  about  thirty  days.  The  saving  of 
time  and  trouble  at  lambing,  and  the  superior  evenness  and 
value  of  a  flock  of  lambs  which  is  obtained  by  having  them 
all  yeaned  within  a  few  days  of  each  other,  is  well  known  to 
all  sheep  farmers.  Many  flock-masters  give  their  ewes  extra 
feed  during  the  coupling  season,  to  promote  this  object.  A 
little  sharp  exercise,  like  an  occasional  run  across  a  field,  is 
thought  by  many  to  excite  ewes  to  heat  —  but  I  have  never 
tried  the  experiment. 

SELECTING  EWES  FOB  THE  RAM. — Where  there  is  an 
opportunity  to  choose  between  several  valuable  rams,  the 
selection  of  the  ewes  to  breed  to  each,  requires  judgment  and 
careful  study.  The  flock  of  ewes  should  be  examined,  the 
individual  excellencies  and  faults  of  each,  and  her  he/editary 
predispositions  and  actual  habits  of  breeding,  so  far  as  can  be 
ascertained,  fully  taken  into  account ;  and  then  she  should  be 
marked  for  the  ram,  which,  in  himself,  and  by  his  previous 
get,  appears,  on  the  whole,  best  calculated  to  produce 
improvement  in  their  united  progeny.  Many  of  the  Vermont 
farmers  thus  divide  their  small  flocks  of  ewes  into  parcels  of 
ten  or  twenty  each,  and  take  them  to  rams  owned  by  a 
number  of  different  breeders :  for,  by  a  prevailing  custom,  the 
liberality  of  which  cannot  be  too  highly  commended,  all  the 
most  distinguished  breeders  of  that  State  allow  other  persons 
to  send  ewes  to  their  best  stock  rams  for  a  merely  nominal 
compensation,  considering  the  advantages  which  are  often 


200  COUPLING   RAMS   AND    EWES. 

thus  secured.*  This  enables  the  owners  of  flocks  who  can  not 
afford  to  incur  the  serious  cost  and  risk  of  keeping  a  number 
of  high-priced  stock  rams,  to  obtain,  notwithstanding,  the 
services  of  those  which  are  best  adapted  to  breeding  with 
each  class  of  their  ewes.  And  the  young  or  less  skillful 
breeder  can  thus,  too,  obtain  the  immense  advantage  of  using 
the  most  perfect  sire  rams  in  the  country — those  which  are 
too  costly  for  his  purchase  f  —  and  those  which  will  improve 
his  flock  more  in  the  first  generation  than  he  could  possibly 
otherwise  improve  it  in  five  generations. 

COUPLING. — Very  few  flock-masters  now  feel  that  they 
can  afford  to  bestow  the  whole  annual  use  of  a  choice,  high- 
priced  ram  on  the  seventy-five,  or  at  the  very  utmost,  on  the 
one  hundred  ewes  he  can  serve,  if  he  is  permitted  to  run  at 
large  with  them;  and  to  accomplish  this,  he  must  be  a  very 
strong  animal,  and  must  be  taken  out  of  the  flocks  nights  and 
fed  by  himself.  And  no  even  tolerably  good  manager 
turns  two  or  more  valuable  rams  at  the  same  time  into  the 
same  flock  to  waste  their  strength,  J  excite,  worry,  fight,  and 
perhaps  kill  each  other.  Even  the  ewes  are  frequently  injured 
by  the  blows  inflicted  by  a  ram  while  another  ram  is 
covering  her. 

There  are  several  different  modes  of  putting  ewes  singly. 
Some  keep  "teasers"  in  the  flock  so  " aproned "§  that  they 
can  not  serve  a  ewe,  and  daubed  with  lard  and  Venetian  red 
under  the  brisket,  so  that  when  a  ewe  will  stand  for  them  she 
is  marked  red  on  the  rump.  The  flock  is  driven  several 
times  a  day  into  a  small  inclosure  (usually  a  sheep  barn,)  in 
apartments  of  which  the  stock  rams  are  kept,  the  "  redded  " 
ewes  are  drawn  out  and  each  is  taken  to  the  ram  for  whicli 
she  is  marked.  After  being  served  once  she  is  turned  into 
the  flock  of  served  ewes. 

*  The  customary  price  has  been  from  $1  to  $2  per  ewe  —  but  I  am  informed  that 
some  leading  breeders  will  feel  themselves  under  the  necessity  of  raising  the  price 
of  service. 

t  Some  of  the  more  celebrated  stock  rams  whose  services  are  thus  let,  would  sell 
for  more  than  the  entire  flocks  of  many  of  those  who  hire  their  services  ! 

$  The  question  is  sometimes  asked  whether  the  cohabitation  of  two  males  with 
the  same  female,  occasions  superfetation,  or  conception  after  prior  conception.  When 
there  are  two  or  more  progeny  at  the  same  birth,  facts  have  occasionally  occurred 
which  appeared  to  show  quite  conclusively  that  they  were  begotten  by  different  males, 
but  such  cases  are  exceptional ;  and  when  there  is  but  one  progeny,  no  facts  ever  go  to 
show  that  it  is  the  combined  progeny  of  two  male  parents. 

§  The  apron  is  a  piece  of  coarse,  open  sacking,  which  covers  the  belly  from  the 
fore  to  the  hind-legs,  and  extends  half  way  up  each  side.  Careful  persons  tie  or  buckle 
it  over  the  back  at  both  ends  and  in  the  middle,  and  then  fasten  it  from  slipping  back 
by  a  strap  round  the  breast,  and  from  slipping  forward  by  a  strap  around  the  breech. 
Though  allowed  to  bag  a  little  in  the  middle,  the  urine  soon  renders  it  a  very  dirty 
affair.  When  I  last  used  teasers,  I  kept  the  same  one  in  a  flock  only  every  third  day. 


PERIOD    OF   GESTATION.  207 

Another  mode  is  to  use  no  teasers,  but  to  drive  in  the 
flock  selected  for  a  particular  ram  twice  a  day,  and  let  him 
loose  in  it ;  and  as  soon  as  a  ewe  is  served  to  draw  her  out. 
After  three  or  four  are  served,  the  ram  is  returned  to  his 
quarters,  and  the  remainder  of  the  flock  to  the  field.  A  very 
vigorous  ram  may  be  allowed  to  serve  from  eight  to  ten  ewes 
a  day.  This  last  mode  is  now  generally  preferred.  It  takes 
up  but  little  more  time  than  the  other.  It  saves  the  expense 
and  trouble  of  keeping  teazers,  which  must  be  frequently 
changed ;  for  after  making  their  fruitiest  efforts  for  two  or 
three  days,  they  generally  almost  cease  to  mark  ewes.  Lambs 
and  yearlings  are  nearly  useless  as  teazers.  Good  stock  rams 
ought  not  to  be  put  on  this  service,  for  it  rapidly  reduces 
them  in  condition. 

Any  mode  of  effecting  the  object  in  view  —  one  on  the 
correct  management  of  which  the  success  of  breeding  so 
much  depends  —  must  be  conducted  with  rigid  accuracy,  so 
that  the  mark  on  the  ewe  shall  in  all  cases  indicate  the  ram 
actually  used.  An  erroneous  record  is  vastly  worse  than 
none.  It  misleads  the  owner,  and  cheats  the  purchaser  who 
buys  with  reference  to  its  showings. 

The  served  ewes  should  be  returned  to  the  ram  after  the 
thirteenth  day.  If  they  come  in  heat  again,  it  is  usually  from 
the  fourteenth  to  the  seventeenth  day;  but  the  number  is 
ordinarily  quite  small  if  the  ram  is  a  good  one,  and  is  well 
managed.  * 

PEBIOD  OF  GESTATION. —  The  time  during  which  ewes  go 
with  young  frequently  varies  upwards  of  a  week  —  in  some 
unusual  cases,  nearly  two  weeks.  They  usually  go  longer 
with  ram  than  with  ewe  lambs.  The  average  period  of 
gestation  does  not  usually  vary  much  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty-two  days. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  RAMS  DURING  COUPLING. — Whatever 
system  of  coupling  is  adopted,  the  ram  demands  extra  care 
and  feed  during  the  season  of  it.  Whether  taken  from  the 
flock  only  at  night,  or  kept  from  it  entirely  except  when 

*  A  ram  which  has  been  ill,  or  overworked,  may  not  get  lambs  one  year  and  may 
prove  a  sure  lamb-getter  the  next.  Sometimes  rams  fail  in  this  respect  in  the  opening 
of  the  season,  but  not  subsequently  — or  rice  versa.  Occasionally  a  Merino  ram  is 
hung  so  low  in  the  sheath  that  he  cannot  serve  a  ewe.  If  he  is  valuable,  some  persons 
give  him  the  advantage  of  a  platform,  raised  three  or  four  inches.  Others  buckle  a 
broad  strap  tight  enough  around  his  body  to  elevate  the  point  of  the  sheath  sufficiently. 
With  some  rams  confinement  to  dry  feed  a  few  days  is  all  that  is  necessary. 


208  MANAGEMENT   OP   EAM8   IN   COUPLING. 

covering,  his  separate  inclosure  should  of  course  be  dry,  clean 
and  comfortable  —  properly  ventilated  and  lighted :  and  it  is 
better  that  it  entirely  seclude  him  from  seeing  or  hearing  the 
ewes,  except  when  he  is  admitted  to  them.  It  should  also  be 
strong  enough  to  defy  his  utmost  efforts  to  escape.*  He 
should  have  fresh  water  in  a  clean  bucket  (no  sheep  freely 
drinks  dirty  water,  or  out  of  a  dirty  bucket,)  at  least  three 
times  a  day  —  the  choicest  of  hay  —  and  be  fed  on  grain 
morning  and  evening.  That  mixture  of  oats  and  peas  which 
is  produced  by  sowing  three  bushels  of  the  former  to  one  of 
the  latter — with  one-quarter  part  of  wheat  added,  constitutes 
an  admirable  grain  feed,  when  the  ram's  powers  are  severely 
taxed.  A  quart  of  this  mixture  daily,  and  sometimes  even 
more,  is  often  fed  to  a  good-sized,  mature  animal,  which  has 
been  used  to  hard  service  and  high  feed.  It  would,  however, 
cloy  the  appetite,  if  the  feeding  was  not  commenced  two  or 
three  weeks  in  advance  of  the  coupling  season  and  gradually 
raised  to  that  point.  This  should  be  done  not  only  to  prevent 
that  result,  but  to  give  the  ram  a  degree  of  preparation  for 
his  work.  He  ought,  by  no  means,  however,  to  be  shut  up  in 
his  stall  without  exercise  during  this  preparatory  period. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  precise  mixture  of  feed 
above  recommended,  is  indispensable.  But  all  the  articles 
named  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  those  nitrogenized 
matters  which  produce  muscle,  or  lean  meat,  and  consequently 
strength,  energy  and  activity, — while  Indian  corn,  oil  meal, 
etc.,  contain  an  excess  of  carbon  which  tends  to  the  production 
of  fat.  The  ram  demands  the  former,  and  is  only  encum- 
bered by  any  excess  of  the  latter. 

One  rule  is  to  be  kept  steadily  in  view  in  feeding  a  ram 
during  the  coupling  season.  He  should  not  be  fed  more  at  a 
meal  than  he  will  consume  briskly  and  cleanly.  If  he  leaves 
any  part  of  his  •  allowance,  it  should  be  removed  from  his 
manger ;  and  if  this  is  found  to  be  habitual,  the  allowance 
should  be  reduced. 

I  regard  it  as  highly  inexpedient  to  keep  two  rams  in  the 
same  inclosure  or  room  at  this  period,  however  well  one  may 
seem  to  be  subjected  to  the  other.  Jealousy  often  provokes 
even  the  weaker  one  to  make  battle :  and  an  animal  of  great 
value  may  be  sacrificed  by  a  chance  blow. 

The  modes  of  putting  ewes  and  managing  rams  I  have 

*  Powerful  Merino  rams  which  have  acquired  the  habit  of  breaking  inclosures, 
will  often  dash  through  the  side  of  a  barn,  or  knock  a  stable  door  from  its  hinges,  at 
the  second  or  third  blow.  They  are  "  battering-rams,"  indeed  I 


DIVIDING  FLOCKS   FOR   WINTER.  209 

recommended  demand  some  expenditure  of  time  and  labor. 
It  -would  probably  consume  all  the  time  of  an  active  shepherd 
properly  to  take  care  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  or  five  hundred 
ewes  and  the  number  of  rams  required  to  serve  them,  during 
the  ordinaiy  coupling  period  of  thirty-five  or  forty  days :  and 
if  he  had  but  two  hundred  and  fifty  or  three  hundred  to  take 
care  of,  it  would  still  consume  all  his  time.  But  the  labor  of 
one  or  .two  men  for  that  period,  Avould  be  a  very  trifling 
matter  compared  with  the  benefits  thus  secured.  These 
directions  are  not,  of  course,  intended  for  the  owners  of 
cheap,  common  flocks  who  are  aiming  at  no  important 
improvements,  and  who  would  regard  $25  an  enormous  price 
to  pay  for  a  ram,  and  who  oftener  do  not  pay  more  than  $5.* 
But  for  the  last  ten  if  not  twenty  years  preceding  the  late  rise 
in  the  price  of  sheep,  those  Merino  and  English  rams  which 
breeders  regard  as  first  class  ones,  have  sold  for  at  least  $100 
a  piece  —  frequently  for  twice  or  three  times  that  amount, 
and,  as  already  remarked,  no  property  is  more  precarious. 

When  the  period  fixed  on  for  coupling  is  over,  it  is 
generally  decidedly  best  to  separate  the  rams  from  the  flock 
and  keep  them  separated  until  that  period  again  recurs.  If 
rams  are  allowed  to  run  with  the  ewes  either  in  winter  or 
summer,  there  is  always  a  chance  of  having  lambs  come  at 
very  unseasonable  times.  Eating  at  the  same  rack  or  trough 
in  winter  with  horned  rams,  is  dangerous  to  breeding  ewes. 
If  the  former  are  cross  the  danger  is  great ;  but  even  if  not, 
the  ram,  in  making  his  way  to  the  rack  through  a  crowd  of 
ewes,  is  liable  to  inflict  unintentional  injury  on  those  in 
advanced  stages  of  pregnancy. 

DIVIDING  FLOCKS  FOR  WINTER.  —  In  latitudes  where 
sheep  are  fed  dry  feed,  and  are  kept  confined  to  stables  and 
small  yards  in  winter,  even  Merinos  will  not  bear  herding 
together  in  large  numbers.  They  should  be  divided  into 
separate  lots  before,  and  preparatory  to,  going  into  winter 
quarters.  It  is  better  that  these  lots  be  made  as  small  as 
convenience  permits,  and  not  exceed  100  each.  The  sheep  in 
each  should  be  as  nearly  uniform  in  size  and  strength  as 
practicable,  or  otherwise  the  stronger  will  rob  the  weaker, 
both  at  the  rack  and  trough,  and  will  jostle  them  about 

*  I  could  illustrate  the  curious  kind  of  economy  sometimes  exhibited  in  regard  to 
rams,  by  naming  an  individual  residing  on  the  borders  of  this  (Cortland)  county, 
•who  has  within  the  last  five  years  allowed  60  good  ewes  owned  by  him  to  go  without 
the  ram  one  year,  rather  than  pay  $10  for  a  decent  one,  which  was  offered  him  at  that 
price! 


210  DIVIDING    FLOCKS    FOR    WINTER. 

whenever  they  come  in  contact.  Breeding  ewes,  wethers  and 
weaned  lambs,  should  always  be  kept  in  separate  parcels 
from  each  other,  in  well  regulated  flocks. 

Sheep  which  are  old  and  feeble,  late  born  lambs,  etc.,  had 
better  be  sold  at  any  price  or  given  to  a  poor  neighbor  who 
has  time  to  nurse  and  take  care  of  them.  But  if  kept  by  the 
flock-master,  they  should  be  put  by  themselves  in  a  particularly 
sheltered  and  comfortable  place  where  they  can  receive  extra 
feed  and  attention.  This  is  usually  called  "the  hospital." 

English  sheep  should  be  divided  into  still  smaller  parcels, 
and  with  the  same  regard  to  age,  condition  and  sex. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

WINTER   MANAGEMENT. 

WINTER     SHELTER  —  TEMPORARY    SHEDS HAY    BARNS   WITH 

OPEN   SHEDS SHEEP   BARNS    OR   STABLES CLEANING    OUT 

STABLES    IN    WINTER YARDS LITTERING    YARDS CON- 
FINING  SHEEP   IN   YARDS   AND   TO   DRY   FEED. 

WINTER  SHELTER.—  It  has  already  been  assumed  that  a 
degree  of  winter  shelter  is  requisite  for  the  most  profitable 
management  of  sheep  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The 
Merino  can  withstand  far  greater  exposures  to  extremes  and 
to  rapid  fluctuations  of  weather,  than  any  other  improved 
or  really  valuable  breed.  In  Spain  it  was  unsheltered.  In 
Western  Texas  —  in  that  magnificent  sheep-growing  region 
which  lies  immediately  north  of  San  Antonio  —  it  has  been 
claimed  that  it  requires  no  shelter ;  but  facts-  which  I  shall 
allude  to  hereafter  incontestibly  prove  the  contrary. 


SHED    OF   POLES. 

TEMPORARY  SHEDS. —  Adequate  shelter  in  warm  regions 
like  Western  Texas,  demands  no  arrangements  which  would 
be  at  all  expensive  in  a  well-wooded  region,  or  where  sawed 
timber  could  be  obtained  at  moderate  prices  —  for  the 
cheapest  form  of  open  shed  (i.  e.,  open  on  one  side,)  would 
answer  the  purpose.  Or,  excellent  sheds  might  be  constructed 
with  logs  or  poles.  The  pole  shed  is  made  as  shown  above. 


212  STELLS BARNS    WITH    OPEN    SHEDS. 

This  is  covered  with  straw,  reeds,  sods,  brush,  clay,  or 
anything  else  which  will  prevent  the  wind  and  rain  from 
driving  through  it.  It  is  decidedly  improved  by  raising  the 
lower  ends  of  the  poles  two  feet  by  means  of  a  log,  stone- wall, 
.or  a  bank  of  earth  or  sods. 

CLUMPS  OF  TREES  AND  STELLS. — If  one  generation  would 
be  persuaded  to  make  arrangements  for  another  generation, 
good  sheep  shelters  could  be  cheaply  formed,  and  on  the  most 
comprehensive  scale,  by  planting  clumps  or  belts  of  woodland, 
for  that  purpose,  on  the  vast  timberless  plains  of  the  South- 
west. Evergreen  trees  would  be  far  preferable,  if  they  could 
be  obtained,  and  would  flourish  in  the  situations  where  they 
are  required.  With  stone  walls  or  hedges  on  the  west  and 
north,  even  a  small  clump  of  such  trees  would  form  a  far 
better  stell  than  many  of  those  which  are  used  on  the  bleak 
and  storm-swept  highlands  of  Scotland, —  which  consist  of 
walls  alone.  Larger  clumps  would  answer  without  the  walls ; 
but  they  should  be  sufticient  to  protect  sheep  from  the  fury  of 
the  wind,  which  renders  cold  vastly  less  endurable  by  them 
—  particularly  when  it  follows  a  rain  which  has  penetrated  to 
their  skins.  For  this  object,  and  indeed  for  all  objects,  naked 
stells  composed  merely  of  high  stone  walls,  board  fences,  or 
double  lines  of  poles  with  straw,  sods  or  earth  filled  in 
between  them,  are  far  better  than  no  protection. 

HAT  BARNS  WITH  OPEN  SHEDS. —  In  all  the  States  lying 
south  of  40  deg.,  open  sheds  are  sufficient  winter  protection 
for  Merino  sheep,  and  probably  so  for  the  English  mutton 
varieties, — though  perhaps  the  high-bred  New  Leicester  would, 
in  many  situations,  find  more  protection  profitable  at  some 
periods  of  the  year. 

Hay  barns  and  sheep  sheds  like  those  on  the  following 
page,  or  of  some  analagous  construction,  were  much  in  vogue 
in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  a  few  years  since. 

But  there  were  many  difficulties  about  them,  in  the 
climates  of  those  States.  Snow  often  blew  under  the  sheds 
when  the  wind  was  in  front ;  and  in  severe  gales,  even  when 
the  wind  was  in  their  rear,  it  drifted  over  from  behind  — 
piling  up  large  banks  immediately  in  front,  which  gradually 
encroached  on  the  sheltered  space,  and  filled  its  bottom  with 
water  whenever  there  was  a  thaw. 

If  a  cold  storm,  or  a  very  freezing  temperature  occurred 
at  lambing  time,  these  open  sheds  did  not  sufficiently  exclude 


BARNS    WITH    OPEN   SHEDS. 


213 


the  cold;  and  they  did  not  prevent  the  ewes  going  out  of 
them  to  lamb,  or  from  leading  their  new-born  lambs  out  at 
very  unseasonable  times,  to  follow  the  movements  of  the  flock. 


SHEEP     BARN. 


No  female  animal  is  more  attached  to  her  young  than  the 
ewe,  but  none  exhibits  less  providence  in  protecting  it  from 
any  danger,  except  by  setting  it  an  example  of  running  from 
those  which  terrify  and  demand  flight.*  If  the  ewe  needed 

*  Even  then,  if  seriously  frightened,  she  generally  runs  directly  away  from  the 
danger  without  stopping  for  her  lamb  if  it  cannot  keep  up.  She  has  not  the  remotest 
idea  of  sheltering  it  from  cold  by  the  warmth  of  her  own  person,  or  any  apparent 
consciousness  that  anywhere,  or  under  any  circumstances,  it  is  weaker  or  tenderer  or 
more  exposed  to  danger  than  herself.  We  read  anecdotes  of  a  very  contrary  tenor 


among  sentimental  writers,  and  naturalists  who  wish  to  enliven  their  narrations,  or 
sustain  some  favorite  theory.  These  anecdotes  are  very  pretty — sometimes  affecting; 
but  unfortunately  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  untrue  !  Jessie,  for  example, 
expatiates  on  the  fact  that  the  ewe  with  twins  does  not  allow  one  of  them  to  suck 
until  the  other  is  ready  to  share  in  the  meal.  Now  every  practical  sheep  farmer  has 
been  a  thousand  times  provoked  by  seeing  a  ewe,  followed  by  one  strong,  fat  twin 
lamb  which  she  allowed  to  fill  itself  at  pleasure,  moving  restlessly  about,  without 
waiting  for,  or  seeming  to  have  any  care  for,  its  mate,  which  was  born  weaker  and  less 
able  to  follow— and  which  is  being  starved  to  death  in  consequence  of  its  weakness. 
Even  Mr.  Youatt  talks  of  special  attachments  between  particular  sheep,  and  of  their 
"  alternately  sheltering  each  other  from  the  biting  blast  and  the  suffocating  drift."  He 
quotes  from  the  Shepherd's  Calender  the  following  statement : — "  When  a  sheep 
becomes  blind  it  is  rarely  abandoned  to  itself  in  this  hapless  and  helpless  state:  some 
one  of  the  flock  attaches  himself  to  it  and,  by  bleating,  calls  it  back  from  the  precipice, 
and  the  lake,  and  the  pool,  and  every  kind  of  danger."  (Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  375.)  I 
have  no  doubt  that  the  half  wild  breeds  in  the  mountains  of  Scotland,  and  in  other 
regions  where  they  are  left  almost  in  a  state  of  nature  to  obtain  their  food  and  take 
care  of  themselves,  retain  far  more  of  their  natural  instincts  than  the  more  thoroughly 
domesticated  sheep.  They  will  band  together  to  fight  an  enemy,  and  it  is  said  the  ewe 
will  fight  a  fox  or  small  dog  in  defence  of  her  lamb.  I  never  saw  an  instance  of  either, 
among  the  Merinos.  I  never  saw  one  sheep  render  another  any  direct  or  intentional 
assistance  of  any  kind  unless  the  following  are  instances  of  it.  There  are  a  few  rams 
which  will  not  permit  a  stranger  to  catch  out  one  of  their  ewes  when  they  are 
together  in  the  winter  yard.  I  own  such  a  ram  now,  and  even  his  attendant  has  to 
act  with  great  caution  under  such  circumstances.  Whether  the  precise  object  of  the 
ram  is  to  protect  its  associates,  I  am  unable  to  say.  The  Merino,  removed  to  moun- 
tains or  great  plains,  and  removed  from  the  constant  control  and  supervision  of  man, 
may  acquire,  or  resume  habits  more  necessary  in  such  situations. 


214  SHEEP    BARNS    OB   STABLES 

assistance  in  lambing,  or  if  the  lamb  required  to  be  helped  to  the 
teat,  it  was  difficult  to  catch  her  conveniently  in  an  open  shed. 

SHEEP  BARNS  OR  STABLES.  —  For  all  the  preceding 
reasons,  barns  or  stables  for  the  winter  shelter  of  sheep,  now 
receive  universal  preference  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
States.  These  are  generally  constructed — and  always  should 
be  —  so  that  they  can  be  closed  as  tightly  as  ordinary 
horse  or  cow-barns.  But  they  require  doors  sufficient  for 
ventilation  and  exposure  to  the  sun  in  fine  weather,  and  for 
the  ingress  of  a  farm  wagon  to  haul  out  manure.  And  by 
means  of  movable  windows,  or  slides  covering  apertures  in 
the  walls,  they  should  be  capable  of  being  thoroughly 
ventilated  at  any  time,  with  the  doors  closed. 

When  these  close  sheep  barns  first  came  into  use,  each 
was  generally  made  large  enough  for  seventy-five  or  one 
hundred  sheep ;  and  they  were  scattered  about  the  farm  so  as 
to  be  contiguous  to  the  meadows  from  which  they  were  to  be 
filled  with  hay,  and  so  the  manure  made  in  and  about  them 
would  only  require  hauling  a  short  distance.  There  was 
another  argument  in  their  favor.  If  a  contagious  or  infectious 
disease  broke  out  in  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  flock,  it  did 
not  necessarily  extend  to  all ;  and,  theoretically  speaking  at 
least,  the  fewer  the  sheep  which  inhale  the  same  local 
atmosphere  the  freer  from  impurities  it  must  remain. 

But  serious  inconveniences  were  found  to  attend  this 
system.  It  required  almost  a  double  outlay  of  materials  and 
expense  to  build  separate  barns  and  prepare  separate  yards, 
arrangements  for  watering,  etc.,  for  each  flock.  These 
scattered  barns  required  the  farmer  or  his  shepherd  to  wade 
wearily  two  or  three  times  a  day,  mounted  or  on  foot,  for 
long  distances  through  sheets  of  snow  which  the  winds 
generally  rendered  pathless;  and  oftentimes,  and  even  for 
days  together,  to  do  this  amidst  blinding  snow-storms  or 
the  most  terrible  extremes  of  cold.  Much  shoveling  was 
constantly  necessary  to  give  the  sheep  access  to  water,  etc. 
If  the  supply  of  hay  happened  to  fail  at  one  of  these  distant 
barns,  it  was  often  more  trouble  to  get  it  there,  than  it  would 
have  been  to  cart  all  the  hay  consumed  in  the  barn  to  a  central 
one  near  the  farm-house,  and  haul  all  the  manure  made  from 
it  back.  These  barns  were  inconvenient  at  lambing  time, 
because  the  constant  attention  which  one  man  could  give  to 
all  the  breeding  ewes  at  once,  if  in  the  same  or  contiguous 
buildings,  was  necessarily  divided  up  between  the  several 
scattered  parcels  of  them,  leaving  but  little  time,  compara- 


SHEEP    BARNS    OR    STABLES.  215 

tively,  for  each.  And,  finally,  the  farmer  was  not  so  apt, 
under  such  circumstances,  to  see  all  his  sheep  daily  with  his 
own  eyes  ;  nor  was  either  he  or  his  shepherd  half  so  prone  to 
turn  out  in  the  night  to  take  care  of  the  sheep  or  the  lambs, 
provided  a  change  of  weather,  the  rising  of  a  gale,  or  any 
other  circumstance  rendered  it  expedient.* 

It  is  now  usual  to  construct  the  sheep,  like  the  horse  and 
cow  barns,  near  the  farm-house.  When  the  farm  flock  does 
not  exceed  about  three  hundred,  it  is  often  wintered  in  a 
single  barn  which  has  separate  apartments,  holding  from 
seventy-five  to  one  hundred  sheep  each ;  and  each  apartment 
has  a  separate  outside  yard.  The  upper  story  of  these  barns 
is  devoted  to  hay  for  the  sheep :  the  under  one  is  eight  feet 
high,  and  floored  on  the  bottom  if  it  is  necessary  to  insure 
perfect  dryness. 

It  is  common  to  take  advantage  of  a  slope  in  the  ground, 
and  by  means  of  a  small  amount  of  excavation,  so  to  place  the 
sheep  barn  that  while  the  doors  of  the  basement  story  open  on 
a  lower  level,  those  of  the  second  story  open  upon  a  higher 
level,  or  on  the  surface  of  an  ascent,  on  the  opposite  side  —  so 
that  hay  can  be  drawn  on  wagons  into  the  upper  story.  This 
is  something  of  a  convenience,  and  was  a  great  one  before  the 
invention  of  the  horse  pitch-fork.  The  side  of  the  lower  story 
which  supports  the  bank  of  earth  resting  against  it,  is  generally 
composed  of  stone -wall — this  being  necessary  both  for 
strength  and  durability.  In  various  states  of  the  atmosphere 
this  wall  exudes  moisture,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  "sweats," — 
diffusing  dampness  through  the  apartment.  Unless  that 
apartment  is  far  higher,  more  spacious  and  better  ventilated 
than  would  otherwise  be  necessary,  this  dampness  is  unques- 
tionably prejudicial  to  the  health  of  sheep.  The  better  course 
would  be,  where  such  a  barn  is  thought  desirable,  to  build  it 
entirely  independent  of  the  bank-wall  and  connect  them  with 
a  short  bridge. 

The  usual  way  of  dividing  the  lower  story  of  the  sheep 
barn  into  apartments  for  different  parcels  of  sheep,  is  simply 

*  For  example,  I  remember  some  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  since  to  have 
had  several  hundred  ewes  with  young  lambs  left  out  on  a  warm  and'beautiful  night 
in  early  May,  in  four  adjoining  fields.  A  little  after  midnight  I  was  wakened  by  the 
first  howl  of  a  north-easter,  which  was  accompanied  by  a  blinding  snow-storm. 
This  was  a  case  to  say  come  instead  of  go.  In  fifteen  minutes  three  of  us,  with  our 
lanterns,  had  started  for  the  fields  about  half  a  mile  off:  and  we  worked  on  until  9 
o'clock  the  next  morning  in  getting  in  the  sheep,  and  half  frozen  lambs,  and  in  resus- 
citating the  latter.  We  probably  saved  a  hundred  lambs  which  would  have  perished 
before  morning,  Had  these  sheep  been  out  in  the  same  number  of  parcels  half  a  mile 
from  each  other — some  of  them  a  mile  and  a  half  from  my  house  —  what  chance 
would  there  have  been  to  save  the  great  body  of  the  younger  lambs  ? 


216  SHEEP    BARNS. 

by  placing  feeding  racks  across  them  —  so  that  in  reality  the 
sheep  are  all  in  one  room.  This  mode  is  a  material  saving 
both  of  space  and  expense;  and  it  is  highly  convenient, 
inasmuch  as  the  partitions  can  be  changed  in  a  moment  to 
adapt  them  to  any  change  which  it  is  desirable  to  make  in  the 
relative  number  of  sheep  in  the  different  apartments.  But  it 
must  be  obvious  that  any.  considerable  number  of  sheep  when 
thus  kept  breathing  the  same  indoor  atmosphere,  require  that 
the  means  of  ventilation  be  abundant  and  most  thoroughly 
kept  in  operation.  Indeed,  I  should  prefer,  as  a  matter  of 
prudence,  not  to  place  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  sheep 
in  the  same  room,  though  divided  into  smaller  flocks  on  the 
floor.  With  different  rooms,  and  with  independent  means  of 
communicating  with  the  external  air,  four  hundred  or  six 
hundred  could  be  kept,  perhaps,  just  as  safely,  under  the  same 
roof,  unless  during  the  prevalence  of  infectious  or  epizootic 
diseases.  But  who  can  be  certain  that  these  will  remain 
absent  ?  On  the  whole,  such  large  and  close  aggregations  of 
sheep  are  inexpedient. 

The  room  required  for  a  given  number  of  Merino  breeding 
ewes  in  a  barn  is,  for  Paulars,  about  ten  and  two-thirds  square 
feet  of  area  on  the  floor  each ;  in  other  words,  an  apartment 
twenty  by  forty  feet  in  the  clear  will  accommodate  seventy-five, 
so  that  they  can  all  eat  at  the  same  time  at  single  or  wall  racks 
placed  round  the  entire  walls,  except  before  the  doors.  A 
room  forty  feet  square  will  accommodate  one  hundred  and  fifty, 
but  it  requires  forty  feet  of  double  rack*  to  be  placed  in  the 
area  inside  of  the  wall  racks.  Larger  Merino,  or  English  ewes, 
require  more  room  in  proportion  to  their  size.  Some  of  the  last 
would  probably  require  nearly  twice  as  much  room  per  head. 

A  sheep  barn  should  open  on  the  side  least  exposed  to  the 
prevailing  winter  winds ;  and  its  yards  should  be  placed  as 
much  as  practicable  under  its  shelter.  Some  persons  build 
these  barns  in  the  form  of  an  L,  to  break  off  the  winds  from 
different  quarters ;  others  make  a  high  stone  wall  or  board 
fence  a  substitute  for  one  of  the  limbs  of  the  L.  The  yards 
are  inconveniently  narrow  if  restricted  to  the  breadth  of  the 
inside  apartments  ;  and  should,  therefore,  be  widened  accord- 
ing to  circumstances. 

The  following  ground  plan  is  intentionally  confined  to  a 


*  I  here  use  the  word  single  or  wall-rack  to  signify  one  made  to  set  against  a 
wall,  which  can  only  be  eaten  from  on  one  side  —  the  word  double  rack,  to  signify  one 
which  can  be  eaten  from  on  both  sides,  so  that  forty  feet  of  one  is  equivalent  to  eighty 
feet  of  the  other. 


SHEEP  BAKNS  AND  YAEDS. 


217 


mere  outline  of  a  very  simple  and  compact  sheep  barn,  which 
is  under  a  single  roof,  has  no  waste  space,  and  makes  the 
utmost  use  of  all  its  materials.  Three  diiferent  modes  of 
watering  are  presented,  either  of  which  is  sufficient,  and  the 
choice  between  them  should  depend  upon  circumstances. 


Cl 


PLAN  OF  SHEEP  BARN  AND  YARDS. 

a,  a,  a,  a,  Apartments  or  stables  in  sheep  barn,  20  by  40  feet.  The  central  parti- 
tion a  close  one,  with  single  racks  on  each  side.  The  other  two  partitions  composed 
of  double  racks.  Single  racks  round  all  the  outside  walls  except  at  doors. 

6,  6,  Watering  tubs,  when  water  is  brought  into  barn  in  pipes. 

e,  c,  c,  A  door  in  central  partition  and  gates  in  the  other  two  partitions. 

d,  d,  d,  d,  Sheep  yards,  30  feet  wide  ;  the  two  outside  ones  60  feet  long ;  the  two 
inside  ones  52  feet  long  :  thus  arranged  to  allow  the  four  flocks  of  sheep  to  drink  from 
the  troughs  of  one  pump-house  at  e. 

e,  Pump-house  and  troughs  for  four  yards,   if  water  is  not  carried  into  the 
barn  at  b,  b. 

/,  /,  Pump-houses  and  troughs,  each  accommodating  two  yards,  provided  neither 
of  preceding  plans  of  watering  are  available  or  desirable. 

Sheep  barns  are  often  connected  with  other  farm  buildings, 
such  as  horse  stables,  wool  rooms,  ram  stables,  etc.  The 
following  is  the  plan  of  Mr.  Hammond's  sheep  establishment.* 
His  house,  wood-sheds,  etc.,  stand  south  of  the  barns,  so  that 
they  principally  break  the  force  of  the  wind  from  that 
quarter. 


*  Except  a  slight  char 
barn. 


in  respect  to  wool  room,  which  stands  detached  from 


10 


218 


SHEEP    ESTABLISHMENT. 


A>0     X     f-o 


/<?X    C    ij-Q 


30  X  U-0 


6ST 


PLAN   OF   A   SHEEP   ESTABLISHMENT. 

a.  Horse  barn. 

6,  b,  b.  Sheep  stables,  each  divided  into  two  apartments  by  racks  across  them  in 
the  middle. 

c.  Ram  stable,  divided  into  two  apartments 

d.  Hay  barn. 

e.  Wool  room. 

/•,  /i  fi  /•  />  /•  Yards  before  each  apartment  of  sheep  stables, 
fi'i  ff,  ff,  Watering  places,  each  supplying  two  apartments. 

Whatever  plan  is  adopted  for  a  sheep  barn,  certain  things 
are  indispensable.     It  should  stand  on  and  be  surrounded  by 


CLEANING    OUT   STABLES   IN   WINTER.  219 

dry  ground;  occupy  an  elevated,  airy  position,  but  one  as 
little  exposed  as  possible  to  prevailing  winter  winds ;  be  of 
easy  access  to  water ;  possess  ample  capacity  for  the  number 
of  sheep  to  be  kept  in  it ;  and  have  means  of  thorough  ventila- 
tion in  every  state  of  the  atmosphere.  The  hay  floor  above 
the  sheep  stables  should  be  matched  or  battened,  so  as 
entirely  to  prevent  dust,  hay  seeds,  or  chaff  from  sifting 
through  on  the  sheep.  It  should  have  pens  in  the  sheep 
stables  to  throw  the  hay  in  from  above  when  feeding,  so  that 
it  cannot  fall  on  the  backs  of  the  sheep  or  be  run  over  by 
them.*  Every  gate,  door,  fastening  and  fixture  about  it 
should  be  strong  and  secure. 

CLEANING  OUT  STABLES  IN  WINTER. —  It  is  rather  the 
prevailing  custom  among  Northern  flock-masters  not  to  clean 
out  their  sheep  stables  in  winter,  but  merely  to  cover  the 
manure  occasionally  with  fresh  litter.  This  is  unquestionably 
bad  practice,  in  two  particulars.  It  certainly  prevents  making 
anything  like  the  amount  of  manure  which  could  be  formed 
by  mixing  the  dung  and  urine  of  the  sheep  with  an  amount  of 
litter  which  would  half  fill  the  sheep  stable,  if  suffered  to  accu- 
mulate there  throughout  the  winter.  And  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt  that  a  deep  bed  of  manure,  which,  except 
during  severely  cold  weather,  is  constantly  heating,  evolving 
gases,  and  filling  the  apartment  with  a  warm  steam  and  the  odor 
of  fermenting  dung,  and  which,  after  a  decided  thaw  of  a  few 
days,  positively  produces  an  offensive  stench,  can  not  form  a 
very  healthy  lair  for  sheep.  It  is  rather  the  prevailing  opinion 
now  among  the  best  flock-masters,  that  the  increased  practice 
among  Merino  sheep  of  pulling  their  own  and  each  other's 
wool  in  the  winter,  is  occasioned  by  an  irritation  of  the  skin 
caused  by  lying  on  these  beds  of  heating  manure.  Unstabled 
flocks  do  not,  so  far  as  I  have  observed,  thus  become  addicted 
to  "  wool-biting."  Stables  should  be  cleaned  out  three  times 
during  each  -winter,  say  in  the  early  part  of  January,  the 
latter  part  of  February,  and  in  April.  And  in  the  interme- 
diate periods,  it  is  an  excellent  practice  always  to  strew  the 
manure  on  the  floor  with  plaster  (gypsum,)  prior  to  covering 
it  with  fresh  straw.  This  absorbs  the  escaping  gases,  and 
thus  not  only  preserves  the  purity  of  the  atmosphere,  but 
vastly  enhances  the  value  of  the  manure. 

*  Some,  instead  of  this,  shut  the  sheep  out  of  doors  when  filling  the  racks.  But 
the  state  of  the  weather,  as,  for  instance,  in  a  winter  rain-storm,  or  the  situation  of 
the  sheep  —  say  when  they  are  lambing — sometimes  renders  this  highly  improper. 


220  YARDS —  LITTERING   YAKDS. 

YARDS. —  I  by  no  means  wish  to  be  understood  to  express 
the  opinion  that  sheep  yards  should,  for  any  purpose  of  utility, 
be  restricted  to  the  narrow  dimensions  of  those  given  in  the 
preceding  ground  plans.  I  rather  consider  those  the  least 
dimensions  which  can  be  regarded  as  proper ;  and  if 
convenience  equally  admitted  of  it,  I  would  prefer  to  have 
them  much  more  spacious.  They  should  be  constructed  on 
dry,  firm,  thoroughly  drained  ground ;  and  a  gravelly  soil 
rapidly  permeable  by  surface  water,  and  which  quickly  dries, 
is  much  preferable  to  a  clayey,  tenacious  soil,  or  a  peaty  or 
mucky  one  which  retains  moisture.  All  the  yards  ought  to 
have  separate  access  to  water,  and,  if  practicable,  separate 
access  to  different  fields.  This  last  fact  renders  the  plan  of 
yards  given  with  the  first  of  the  preceding  ground  plans 
objectionable,  unless  the  two  middle  flocks  can  be  let  into 
diiferent  fields  through  doors  in  the  opposite  side  of  the  barn. 
That  plan  merely  saves  the  digging  of  one  well ;  and  I  should 
much  prefer  to  dig  the  two  wells  (at/,/,)  and  have  the  yards 
of  equal  length,  and  each  possessed  of  separate  and  indepen- 
dent egress  and  ingress.* 

LITTERING  YARDS. — Strawing  or  otherwise  littering  sheep 
yards  in  winter  in  the  most  thorough  manner,  is  a  matter  of 
prime  importance.  If  sheep  are  compelled  to  stand  or  move 
about  in  mud  or  water  whenever  out  of  doors,  the  most 
liberal  feeding  and  good  management  in  every  other  partic- 
ular, will  hardly  preserve  them  in  the  best  condition.  They 
should  have  a  comparatively  dry  out-door  bed  to  stand  on  in 
wet  weather,  and  a  warm  one  in  cold  weather.  The  sheep  — 
or  at  least  all  the  upland  breeds  of  sheep  —  find  one  of  the 
worst  enemies  of  their  health  and  thrift  in  habitual  wetness 
under  foot.  Muddy  yards  prevent  sheep  from  moving  about 
out  of  doors  and  spending  a  portion  of  the  time  in  the  sun 
and  fresh  air,  in  pleasant  winter  weather  ;  promote  fouls ; 
render  hoof  rot  incurable ;  and  cause  lameness  and  annoyance 
to  sheep  which  have  sound  feet,  when  a  sudden  freeze  converts 
the  small  pellets  of  mud  which  adhere  to  the  hairs  in  the 
forward  part  of  the  cleft  of  the  foot,  into  pellets  of  stone.  A 
little  straw  is  excellent  feed  for  sheep.  If  it  is  scattered  over 

*  By  gates  opposite  each  other  on  the  eight-feet  passage  — one  of  them  opening 
entirely  across  it  on  the  side  of  the  outer  yards — a  separate  passage  could  be  obtained ; 
but  this  would  not  be  very  convenient,  and  when  the  passage  was  thus  closed,  the 
sheep  in  the  outside  yards  would  not  have  access  to  the  water  trough  at  e. 


CONFINEMENT   TO    YARDS   AND    DRY   FEED.  221 

the  yard  they  will  "  pick  it  over,"  eating  the  best  parts,  and 
leaving  enough  to  keep  the  littering  constantly  renewed. 

•  CONFINING  SHEEP  IN  YARDS  AND  TO  DRY  FEED. — A 
decided  majority  of  Northern  flock-masters  prefer  the  strict 
confinement  of  sheep  to  their  yards  during  the  entire  winter. 
They  contend  that  the  slightest  taste  of  the  pasture  during 
thawing  weather  takes  off"  the  appetite  from  hay,  and  that 
sheep  are  equally  healthy  and  even  more  thrifty  under  such 
confinement.  I  dissent  from  both  conclusions. 

If  sheep,  long  kept  from  the  grass  by  deep  snows,  are 
suddenly  admitted  to  it  in  consequence  of  a  winter  thaw,  and 
if  they  are  allowed  wholly  to  subsist  on  it  for  a  number  of 
days  —  as  long  as  the  thaw  continues  —  they  unquestionably 
lose  condition  and  strength  on  herbage  which  has  been 
rendered  innutritions  by  age  and  by  repeated  freezings  and 
tliasvings.  Thin  breeding  ewes  and  young  sheep  sometimes 
suffer  materially  in  this  way,  particularly  in  the  critical  month  of 
March.  When  returned  to  their  confinement  and  to  dry  feed, 
they  have  no  vigorous  appetite  for  it,  and  consequently  do  not 
recover  from  their  debility.  In  certain  unfavorable  seasons 
they  pine,  and  eventually  perish,  if  not  solely  from  this  cause, 
yet  with  the  fatal  termination  accelerated  and  rendered  more 
inevitable  by  it.  Stronger  sheep  recover  from*  its  effects  — 
but  of  course  any  check  in  the  thrift  of  a  flock  results  in  a 
proportionable  loss  in  some  of  its  products. 

Having  habitually  and  regularly  fed  turnips  daily  to 
breeding  ewes,  young  ewes,  rams,  and  wethers,  (when  I  have 
kept  the  latter,)  for  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  winters,  I  am 
enabled  to  affirm,  of  my  own  positive  knowledge,  that  green 
feed,  administered  in  proper  quantities,  does  not  in  the  least 
diminish  the  appetite  for  dry  feed ;  and  that  proper  green 
feed,  so  far  from  weakening,  adds  to  the  condition  and 
strength  of  sheep,  besides  producing  other  good  effects  which 
will  be  adverted  to  when  I  speak  of  the  relative  value  and 
influence  of  winter  feeds.  The  experience  of  the  great  body 
of  English  farmers  fully  sustains  these  conclusions.  The  prac- 
tice of  wintering  sheep  exclusively  on  dry  feed  —  say  on 
meadow  hay  and  straw,  with  or  without  grain  or  pulse  —  is 
substantially  unknown  in  the  arable  districts  of  England. 
For  sheep  of  every  class  not  to  receive  green  feed  daily 
would  there  be  an  exception  ;  and  fattening  sheep  receive  it 
in  abundant  quantities. 

The  winter  grass  in  our   own  Northern   States,  though 


222        CONFINEMENT  TO  YARDS  AND  DRY  FEED. 

comparatively  innutritious,  is,  in  the  absence  of  better  green 
feed,  a  healthful  change  in  the  diet  of  pregnant  ewes.  It 
keeps  down  the  tendency  to  costiveness,  habitual  to  females 
in  that  situation,  and  in  conjunction  with  that  exercise  which 
is  required  to  obtain  it,  renders  the  system  less  subject  to  the 
plethora,  which  is  also  natural  in  pregnancy,  but  which  is 
greatly  fostered  by  rich  food  and  inactivity.  But  to  attain 
these  objects,  the  sheep  should  be  let  out  an  hour  a  day,  instead 
of  the  entire  day,  in  warm  winter  weather.  It  should  obtain 
a  small  portion  of  its  feed,  instead  of  the  whole  of  it,  from 
the  fields. 

Sheep,  like  other  animals,  spontaneously  diminish  their 
amount  of .  exercise  as  they  advance  in  pregnancy,  and  it 
thence  may  very  properly  be  inferred  that  they  require  less 
of  it  than  at  other  times  to  preserve  a  healthy  condition.  It 
is  also  undoubtedly  true  that  excessive  or  fatiguing  exercise 
is  positively  injurious  at  this  period.  But  if  we  can  trust  to 
established  physiological  principles,  or  to  the  teachings  of 
analogy,  the  sudden  change  produced  in  the  habits  of  an 
active,  roving  animal,  by  rigid  confinement  from  the  com- 
mencement to  the  close  of  gestation  —  accompanied  by  a 
complete  alteration  of  diet  —  must  be  attended  by  baneful 
consequences.  Are  we  told  that  pregnant  sheep  thrive  and 
grow  fat  in  this  confinement  —  fatter  than  when  they  are  let 
out  on  the  fields  ?  This  is  true,  and  it  is  one  of  the  dangerous 
incidents  of  the  system.  Pregnancy  of  itself  favors  the 
taking  on  of  flesh;  and  when  this  tendency  is  aided  by 
concentrated  and  highly  nutritious  food,  and  by  entire 
inactivity,  the  condition  established  is  rather  that  of  plethora 
—  high  condition  attended  by  an  unnatural  excess  of  blood — 
than  of  the  healthy  fleshiness  which  comes  with  natural  feed 
and  exercise. 

We  know  that  the  sow  which  is  confined  closely  to  the 
pen  and  fed  to  fatness  on  wholly  artificial  food  never  farrows 
in  safety.  We  should  esteem  that  farmer  beside  himself  who 
confined  his  mares  and  cows  to  little  dry  yards  and  to  dry 
feed  during  the  whole  term  of  pregnancy.  The  most 
celebrated  practitioners  of  medicine  allow  no  such  changes  of 
habit  among  their  human  subjects  during  this  period.  I 
can  not  do  better  than  to  quote  the  sensible  remarks  of  Dr. 
Bedford  on  this  subject.  He  says : 

"  Allow  me  here  to  remark  that,  as  a  general  principle,  if 
the  pregnant  female  observe  strictly  the  ordinances  which  na- 
ture has  inculcated  for  her  guidance ;  if,  for  example,  she  take 


EXERCISE    AND    GREEN   FEED    NECESSARY.  223 

her  regular  exercise  in  the  open  air,  avoid,  as  far  as  may  be, 
all  causes  of  mental  or  physical  excitement,  employ  herself  in 
the  ordinary  duties  of  her  household,  partake  of  nutritious 
and  digestible  food,  repudiate  luxurious  habits,  *  *  *  * 
if,  I  say,  she  will  steadfastly  adhere  to  these  common  sense 
rules,  the  reward  she  will  receive  at  the  hands  of  nature  will 
be  general  good  health  during  her  gestation,  and  an  auspicious 
delivery,  resulting  in  what  will  most  gladden  and  amply  repay 
her  for  her  discretion — the  birth  of  a  healthy  child.  *  * 
But  if  in  lieu  of  these  observances,  the  pregnant  woman, 
pursue  a  life  of  luxury,  leat,  drink,  and  become  merry,' 
neglect  to  take  her  daily  exercise,  and  prefer  her  lounge  — 
the  case  is  entirely  reversed,  etc.*" 

I  might  swell  quotations  of  the  same  tenor  to  a  volume : 
for  such  are  the  settled  opinions  of  the  whole  medical 
profession. 

Am  I  asked  where  the  injurious  effects  of  the  close 
confinement  of  sheep  to  small  yards  and  dry  feed  have 
manifested  themselves  ?  I  suspect  that  they  have  manifested 
themselves  in  the  prevailing  and  destructive  loss  of  lambs 
which  annually  takes  place  in  our  flocks.  Why  is  it  that  with 
better  shelters  and  conveniences  of  every  kind,  and  with 
greatly  increased  skill  as  shepherds,  the  body  of  American 
Merino  flock-masters  do  not  raise  a  larger  per  centage  of 
lambs  than  they  did  twenty  or  ihirty  years  ago?  I  have 
already  expressed  the  opinion  that  eighty  per  cent,  is  still  as 
high  as  the  general  average,  taking  a  series  of  years  together, 
though  I  know  many  small  flocks  in  which  90,  95,  and 
occasionally  100  per  cent,  are  raised.  The  American  Merino 
is  a  much  larger  and  better  formed  animal  than  it  was  twenty 
years  since,  and  though  it  has  undoubtedly  lost  something  of 
that  locomotive  power  and  energy  which  it  possessed  when  it 
was  compelled  to  make  a  journey  of  eight  hundred  miles  each 
year  in  Spain,  it  remains  a  far  hardier  animal  than  the 
improved  English  sheep,  and  it  is  less  subject  to  parturient 
difficulties  and  diseases.f  Yet  the  English  sheep  rear  from 

*  Principles  and  Practice  of  Obstetrics,  by  Gunning  S.  Bedford,  etc.,  etc.  New 
York,  1862,  p.  131. 

t  Mr.  Youatt  enumerates  among  the  defects  of  the  Merino,  "  partly  attributable 
to  the  breed,  but  more  to  the  improper  mode  of  treatment  to  which  they  are  occasion- 
ally subjected"  in  Spain,  "  a  tendency  to  abortion  or  to  barrenness  ;  a  difficulty  of 
yeaning ;  a  paucity  of  milk,  and  a  too  frequent  neglect  of  their  young."  (Youatt, 
p.  149.)  The  tendency  to  abortion  is  not  greater  in  the  American  Merino  than  in  the 
English  ewe:  the  former  does  not  so  often  experience  difficulty  in  yeaning :  and  it  is 
decidedly  loss  subject  to  parturient  fevers.  It  has,  however,  a  greater  -'paucity  of 
milk,"  a  greater  tendency  to  barrenness,  in  the  sense  in  which  I  presume  Mr.  Youatt 


224  CONFINEMENT   TO    YARDS    AND    DRY    FEED. 

thirty  to  fifty  per  cent,  more  lambs !  Our  English  flocks,  it  is 
true,  are  usually  small ;  and  among  the  established  natural 
characteristics  of  the  ewes  are  those  of  bringing  forth  twin 
lambs  and  having  a  sufficient  supply  of  milk  to  raise  them 
/.  But  they  also,  so  far  as  my  knowledge  extends, 
fewer  lambs.  How  is  this  to  be  accounted  for? „  If  the 
Merino  is  a  hardier  animal  than  the  mutton  sheep,  its  lamb, 
it  would  seem,  ought  also  to  be  hardier.  And  so  I  have  no 
doubt  it  is,  if  it  is  born  in  a  perfectly  well  developed,  normal 
condition,  and  if  it  gets  anything  like  a  corresponding  supply 
of  milk.  It  is  not  among  such  that  the  annual  losses  among 
our  lambs  occur.  Those  which  perish  are  generally  undersized 
and  feeble,  or  else  they  do  not  obtain  sufficient  support  from 
their  dams.  It  is  these  causes  and  failure  to  take  the  ram. 
which  keeps  the  rate  of  increase  so  low  in  Merino  flocks. 

This  comparative  want  of  prolificacy  is  the  weak  point  — 
now  really  the  only  one  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  grown — of  our  American  Merino  sheep.  Yet  no  other 
point  has  received  more  of  the  care  of  those  breeders  who 
have  been  so  successful  in  improving  them  in  every  other 
particular.  Their  comparative  failure  is  occasioned  by  no 
obstacle  inherent  in  the  breed,  as  I  could  show  from  a 
variety  of  considerations  and  direct  proofs,  did  space  admit 
of  it.  If  it  can  be  shown  that  there  is  a  radical  error  in 
our  modes  of  management  —  that  we  habitually  compel  the 
pregnant  ewe  to  violate  "  the  ordinances  which  nature  has 
inculcated  for  her  guidance" — need  we  go  further  to  find 
the  causes  of  that  failure  ?  Can  we  wonder  that  lambs  are 
born  imperfectly  developed  when  ewes  are  rigidly  confined 
for  five  or  five  and  a  half  months  —  through  the  entire  term 
of  pregnancy  —  in  little  yards ;  and  even  then  fed  almost 
invariably  within  doors  —  so  that  they  have  no  inducements 
left  to  take  the  least  degree  of  exercise  —  and  so  that  more 
than  four -fifths  of  the  whole  time  they  are  inhaling  the 
atmosphere  of  a  stable,  without  going  out  into  the  fresh  air  and 
sunlight?  Can  we  wonder  that  an  animal  which  obtains  its  en- 
tire summer  subsistence  from  green  vegetation  does  not  secrete 
milk  abundantly,  and  can  not  be  bred  to  secrete  it  abundantly, 
when,  from  the  first  to  the  last  day  of  gestation,  it  is  unnat- 
urally restricted  to  exclusively  dry  food  ?  And  when  young 
and  not  fully  matured  ewes,  or  old  and  decaying  ones,  or 

here  uses  the  word,  i.  e.,  it  oftener  fails  to  take  the  ram.  Literal  barrenness,  or  a 
want  of  the  power  of  conception,  is  almost  unknown  in  the  Merino ;  and  its  failure 
to  take  the  ram,  generally,  springs  from  incidental  and  not  necessary  causes. 


THE    CAUSE    OF    WANT    OF    PROLIFICACY.  225 

poor  ones  of  any  age  —  the  classes  which  furnish  the  principal 
portion  of  those  which  do  not  breed* — are  suddenly  subjected 
to  the  commencement  of  the  preceding  changes,  about  con- 
temporaneously with  that  great  fall  of  temperature  which 
usually  attends  the  setting  in  of  winter,  can  we  wonder  that 
the  depressing  effects  of  all  these  combined  causes  should 
prevent  cohabitation  ?  It  has  already  been  stated  as  a  well 
established  fact,  that  not  only  low  condition,  but  anything 
which,  for  the  time  being,  lowers  the  condition,  tends 
to  produce  that  effect.  Even  ewes  in  the  most  suitable 
situation  for  coupling,  viz.,  in  good,  plump,  store  order  and 
improving  in  condition,  at  the  time,  often  wholly  cease  to  take 
the  ram  in  severely  cold  weather.  And  as  winter  advances, 
the  heats  of  the  Merino  ewe  are  less  to  be  relied  upon. 

Many  American  Merino  sheep  breeders,  on  reading  this, 
Avill  say: — "I  have  used  small  yards,  fed  generally  in  the 
stables,  fed  nothing  but  dry  feed  in  winter,  for  ten,  fifteen, 
or  twenty  years,  and  I  have  always  had  good  success 
in  lamb  raising."  But  what  proportion  of  these  breeders, 
whose  breeding  ewes  count  up  even  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty,  would  be  able  to  show  from  contemporaneous 
records,  or  would  dare  to  affirm  as  a  matter  of  positive 
recollection,  that  they  had  on  the  average,  for  any  consid- 
erable term  of  years,  raised  either  100  per  cent,  of  lambs,  or 
any  very  close  approximation  to  that  number?  Yet  can  lamb 
raising  be  considered  successfully  carried  on,  or  a  breed  to 
have  reached  its  highest  attainable  standard  in  this  particular, 
when  a  selected  flock  of  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  breeding 
ewes  can  not  be  made  annually  to  raise  their  own  number 
of  lambs  ? 

There  is  a  material  difference  in  the  prolificacy  of  the 
English  and  Merino  sheep  —  first  produced,  in  all  probability, 
by  the  different  modes  of  artificial  treatment  to  which  they  were 
subjectedf  —  but  long  since  established  as  permanent  and 
hereditary  characteristics  of  the  different  breeds :  but  I  do 
not  entertain  a  shadow  of  doubt  that  were  the  most  prolific 
English  families  of  sheep  subjected  to  the  same  winter  treat- 

*  If  there  are  "dry  ewes"  in  the  flock,  1.  e.,  those  which  raised  no  lambs  the 
preceding  year,  and  they  are  allowed  to  become  very  fat,  they  too,  are  very  apt  not  to 
become,  as  the  English  Shepherds  say,  "inlambed." 

t  The  Spanish  sheep  were  subjected  neither  to  confinement  nor  dry  feed,  in  the 
winter,  in  Spain  — but  there  being  no  object  to  increase  their  number  they  were  not 
allowed  to  raise  over  50  per  cent,  of  lambs;  and  consequently  prolificacy  was  not  culti- 
vated. While  their  constant  migrations  gave  them  extraordinary  general  vigor,  they 
did  not  tend  to  develop  their  milking  properties. 

10* 


220        CONFINEMENT  TO  YARDS  AND  DRY  FEED. 

ment  which  we  give  to  the  bulk  of  our  American  Merinos, 
half  a  dozen  generations  would  find  them  seriously  degene- 
rated in  prolificacy. 

Occasionally  there  comes  a  year  when  double,  treble  and 
even  quadruple  the  usual  number  of  our  lambs  perish.  The 
causes  and  symptoms  appear  to  be  the  usual  ones,  but 
aggravated  and  extended  by  an  epizootic  influence.  I  have 
(at  page  154,)  described  the  appearance  of  the  lambs,  and  the 
singular  degree  of  mortality  which  prevailed  among  them  in 
the  spring  of  1862.  An  extraordinarily  deep  snow  fell  in  the 
early  part  of  winter,  and  it  was  replenished  about  as  fast  as  it 
wasted  away  until  the  opening  of  spring.  It  was  remarked 
that  most  of  the  breeding  ewes  clung  very  closely  to  their 
stables  —  doing  little  more  than  rising  to  eat  and  then  lying 
down  again.  Those  flocks  most  accustomed  to  close  yarding 
in  many  instances  did  not  tread  down  the  snow  a  dozen  yards 
from  their  stables  during  the  winter.  But  the  weather  was 
steady  and  cold,  so  that  they  continued  to  eat  well,  and  the 
hay  of  that  season  was  generally  of  good  quality.  Thus  their 
inactivity  increased  their  fleshiness,  and  their  fleshiness 
re-acted  and  increased  their  inactivity.  They  generally 
reached  the  spring  in  uncommonly  high  order.  They 
appeared  to  be  well  —  but  yet  there  were  unmistakable 
symptoms  of  a  plethoric  habit  in  the  best  fed  flocks :  and  it 
was  in  the  best  fed  flocks  that  the  loss  of  lambs  was,  as  a 
general  thing,  far  most  severe. 

Putting  all  these  facts  together,  I  have  been  disposed  to 
trace  this  mortality  in  lambs  to  the  condition  of  the  mothers 
—  the  unfavorable  condition  being  aided  by  an  epizootic 
influence.*  Is  it  asked  why  a  proportionable  degree  of 
mortality  does  not  habitually  attend  all  unusual  confinement 
of  breeding  ewes,  and  why,  in  1862,  it  did  not  extend  its 
destructive  ravages  to  Vermont,  where  the  snow  was  equally 
deep  and  laid  still  longer  on  the  ground?  When  it  is 
explained  why  the  directly  exciting  causes  of  various  destruc- 
tive diseases  among  human  beings,  lie  comparatively  dormant 

*  Having,  from  inability  to  fix  upon  any  descriptive  or  definite  name,  termed 
this  imperfect  state  of  the  lambs  of  18(52,  which  resulted  in  such  wide  spread  death, 
"  the  lamb  epizootic  of  1862,"  (in  some  articles  which  I  published  on  the  subject  in 
the  Country  Gentleman,)  several  writers  appeared  to  think  that  I  intended  to  charac- 
terise it  as  a  contagious,  or  infectious  disease.  An  epidemic,  or  epidemy,  is  defined  in 
Dunglison's  Medical  Dictionary  to  be  "  a  disease  which  attacks  at  the  same  time  a 
number  of  individuals,  and  which  is  depending  upon  some  particular  constttutto  aeris, 
or  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  with  which  we  are  utterly  ignorant."  And  he  defines 
epizootia  (epizootic)  to  be  "  a  disease  which  reigns  among  animals  —  corresponding 
in  the  veterinary  art  to  epidemy  in  medicine."  This  correction  is  made  simply  to 
prevent  similar  misconceptions  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  word  in  this  work. 


OVER   FEEDING   AND   WANT    OF    EXERCISE.  227 

for  years  in  a  particular  region  —  producing  only  sporadic  or 
separate  cases ;  why,  in  other  years,  when  all  the  proximate 
causes  appear  to  be  the  same,  some  one  of  those  diseases 
assumes  an  endemic  or  epidemic  form,  desolating  neighbor- 
hoods or  provinces ;  and,  finally,  why,  at  the  height  of  its 
fury,  it  passes  round  and  spares  this  household  or  that,  or  this 
neighborhood  or  that,  and  frequently  leaves  as  well  defined 
margins  as  the  track  of  a  tornado,  although  the  population 
was  as  dense  without  as  within  its  track; — when,  I  say,  these 
anomalies  are  explained,  we  shall  be  able  to  explain  the 
one  under  consideration.  And  let  it  be  remembered  that 
the  same  anomalous  facts  will  continue  to  exist,  to  stand 
as  much  in  the  way  of  the  true  as  of  a  false  theory  of 
explanation. 

I  am  not  tenacious  for  the  acceptance  of  this  explanation. 
I  merely  offer  it  as  the  most  probable  one  within  my 
knowledge.  Better  observed  facts  may  hereafter  throw  more 
light  on  the  subject. 

I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  that  restriction  to  dry  feed 
is  necessary  to  produce  that  condition  of  the  ewe  which  I 
have  assumed  to  be  so  prejudicial  to  the  offspring.  On  the 
contrary,  I  think  it  would  be  produced,  though  hardly  so 
readily  or  to  so  dangerous  an  extent,  by  an  over-supply  of 
good,  green  feed,  attended  with  the  same  other  unhealthy 
auxiliaries.  It  is  the  high  condition,  the  excess  of  blood,-  the 
excited  vascular  system  ready  to  assume  or  produce  inflam- 
matory action,  which  produce  or  co-operate  with  the  morbid 
tendency  to  non-development  in  the  foetus.  Indeed,  high 
condition  alone,  may,  to  some  extent,  offer  a  mechanical  ob- 
struction to  its  development.  The  internal  fat  of  the  dam 
may  so  far  obstruct  the  full  distension  of  the  womb  that  the 
foetus  can  not  grow  to  its  full  size  anterior  to  birth. 

I  urge  letting  out  breeding  ewes  on  the  fields  for  a  limited 
time  each  day,  because  no  animal  more  intensely  craves  a 
portion  of  green  food  in  the  winter ;  and  I  consider  nature  or 
instinct  a  first-rate  judge  of  its  own  wants :  because  the  small 
portion  of  green  feed  obtained  from  the  fields  can  exert  no 
injurious  influence  whatever  in  any  direction,  while  it  prevents 
the  costiveness  peculiarly  incidental  to  pregnancy,  and  by 
keeping  the  bowels  in  an  open  and  regular  state,  has  a  strong 
tendency  to  avert  all  unhealthy  action  or  agencies ;  because 
traveling  about  and  digging  in  the  snow  for  green  feed  affords 
a  most  necessary  and  healthful  exercise  ;  and,  finally,  because 
a  neglect  "  of  these  ordinances  which  nature  has  inculcated  " 


228  MODES    OP    INSURING    EXERCISE. 

for  the  guidance  of  the  pregnant  ewe,  has  been  followed  by 
wide -spread  disaster,  under  circumstances  which  at  least 
give  much  color  to  the  hypothesis  that  they  are  connected 
together  as  cause  and  effect. 

It  by  no  means  follows  from  anything  which  has  been  said, 
that  sheep  require  a  very  extensive  winter  range  on  grass.  I 
should  decidedly  object  to  their  being  allowed  to  feed  down 
all  the  grass  lands  on  the  farm  at  this  period  of  the  year, 
and  particularly  the  meadows. 

A  few  moderate-sized  old  seeded  pastures  about  the  sheep 
barn,  with  a  good  amount  of  grass  left  on  them,  in  the 
fall,  would  answer  every  purpose;  for  the  sheep  with  its 
fluted  teeth  will  not  only  take  the  grass  but  some  portion  of 
its  very  roots.  It  wants  but  little  each  day,  and  the  harder  it 
works  to  obtain  it  the  better  it  is. 

Those  who  raise  turnips  for  the  sheep  must  obtain  exercise 
for  them  in  some  other  way.  A  stack  to  feed  from  at  noon 
in  fine  weather,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  sheep  barn,  is  an 
excellent  arrangement ;  and  who  does  not  recollect  the  old- 
fashioned,  lively  and  merry  scene  of  hauling  out  hay  on  an 
ox-sled  far  from  the  dirty  farm  yard  —  the  great  oxen 
hurrying  forward  as  if  satisfied  some  frolic  was  going  on  — 
the  feeder  tossing  the  fragrant  flakes  right  and  left  —  each 
succeeding  flock  pursuing  with  a  Babel  of  cries — some  of  the 
yoitng  ones  bounding  and  kicking  their  heels  into  the  air  as 
if  greatly  enjoying  their  fine  run  over  the  snow ! 

I  made  it  a  rule  in  entering  upon  the  writing  of  this  book, 
to  look  little  after  authorities  where  I  believed  the  facts  were 
established  by  my  own  observations  ;  but  the  necessity  of 
winter  exercise  for  sheep  seems  to  be  a  much  controverted,, 
question  in  this  country,  and  therefore  I  have  largely' 
consulted  the  best  European  writers  on  the  subject.  I  have 
thus  far  been  unable  to  find  one  who  mentions  the  subject  at 
all,  without  distinctly  insisting  on  the  necessity  of  exercise  ; 
and  when  the  destructive  lamb  epizootic  of  1862  was  termi- 
nating its  ravages,  I  addressed  letters  to  a  number  of  the 
oldest  and  soundest  breeders  in  our  country,  describing  the 
disease  as  I  saw  it,  and  asking  their  opinions  as  to  it  origin. 
To  no  one  did  I  suggest  my  own  theory  of  that  origin.  In 
every  instance,  I  believe,  the  want  of  exercise  was  put  forward 
as  either  the  leading  cause,  or  as  a  cause  second  to  no  other 
in  its  effects.  Several  also  stated  that  they  thought  the 
sheep  "  had  been  kept  too  long  from  the  ground." 


CHAPTER    XX. 

WINTEB   MANAGEMENT  -  CONTINUED. 

HAY      KACKS  WATER     FOR      SHEEP     IN     WINTER  AMOUNT 

OF     FOOD     CONSUMED     BY     SHEEP     IN    WINTER VALUE     OF 

DIFFERENT     FODDERS NUTRITIVE     EQUIVALENTS MIXED 

FEEDS FATTENING    SHEEP     IN   WINTER REGULARITY     IN 

FEEDING. 

HAY  RACKS. —  A  great  variety  of  racks  for  sheep  have 
been  introduced  into  use,  but  for  double  and  portable  ones 
for  ordinary  purposes,  those  of  the  form  exhibited  in  the 
annexed  cut  are  generally  preferred.  The  corner  posts  are  2 

by  2|  or  3  inches  in 
size,  and  are  2  feet  8  or 
10  inches  long — some- 
times 3  feet,  where  the 
racks  are  to  be  used  as 
partitions.  The  side 
an(l  erld.  Boards  are  an 
inch  thick,  the  upper 

ones  six  and  the  lower  ones  nine  inches  wide.  The  perpen- 
dicular slats  are  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  seven  inches 
wide  and  seven  inches  apart,  fastened  to  their  places  by 
wrought  and  well  clenched  nails.  Each  slat  requires  four 
nails,  instead  of  two  as  represented  in  cut.  The  slats  are 
highly  useful  in  keeping  in  hay,  but  their  principal  object  is 
to  prevent  the  sheep  from  crowding.  They  give  every  sheep 
fourteen  inches  at  the  rack  while  eating.  This  is  a  liberal 
allowance  for  the  Merino;  but  the  English  sheep  requires 
more  room.  The  ordinary  breadth  of  the  rack  is  two  and  a 
half  feet,  and  the  length  depends  upon  circumstances.  Those 
intended  to  be  moved  often  are  usually  made  ten  feet  long. 
They  should  be  so  light  that  a  man  standing  inside  of  one  of 
them  can  readily  carry  it  about. 

Single  or  wall  racks  to  be  used  against  the  walls  of  stables 
and  other  places  where  the  sheep  can  approach  them  but  on 


230 


HAY    HACKS,    ETC. 


one  side,  are  often  constructed  like  one  side  of  the  box  rack 
and  attached  to  the  walls  by  stay-laths.  Some  arrange  them 
so  that  they  can  be  raised  as  the  manure  accumulates ;  but 
there  is  no  need  of  this  if  they  are  made  with  the  bottom 
boards  a  foot  instead  of  nine  inches  wide,  and  if  the  manure 
is  cleaned  out  as  often  as  it  should  be. 

But  a  far  neater  and  more  convenient  wall  rack,  having 
troughs  also  connected  with  it,  was  invented  by  Mr.  Virtulan 
Rich,  of  Kichville,  Vermont.  *  The  following  cut,  from  a 
drawing  kindly  furnished  me  by  that  gentleman,  gives  an 
easily  understood  general  view  of  it : 


WALL   BACK    AND    TROUGH. 

a,  Plank  2  inches  thick  and  9  inches  wide,  placed  20  inches  from  wall  (e,)  to  form 
bottom  rail  of  outside  rack. 

ft,  Scantling  3  by  3  inches,  forming  top  rail  of  outside  rack. 

c,  Bottom  of  trough,  being  a  board  placed  on  floor,  or  if  there  is  no  floor,  on 
scantling  to  raise  it  sufficiently  from  ground. 

d,  Board  five  inches  wide,  to  support  the  board  4  inches  wide,  which  forms 
bottom  of  the  inside  rack  (/.)    These  would  be  better  made  of  plank.    Bottom  of 
inside  rack  should  be  (i  inches  above  bottom  of  trough. 

e,  Outside  wall  of  barn  or  stable. 

f,  Inside  rack  hung  with  hinges  to  bottom  board.    It  is  made  by  nailing  slats  1}£ 
inches  wide,  3  inches  apart,  on  upper  and  lower  rails,  which  are  about  11A  by  2  inches 
in  diameter. 

g,  Slats  to  outside  rack  7  inches  wide  and  7  inches  apart. 

h,  Slanting  board,  from  bottom  of  inside  rack  to  bottom  of  trough  and  forming 
back  side  of  trough. 

The  end-views  of  the  same  rack  (on  next  page)  render  the 
details  of  its  construction  a  little  more  apparent.  The  left 
hand  cut  shows  the  inside  rack  (/,)  in  its  place  as  when  filled 
with  hay.  In  the  right  hand  cut,  it  is  turned  up  or  thrown 

*  I  have  previously,  in  this  volume,  named  the  Messrs.  Rich  as  of  Shoreham. 
This  is  the  name  of  the  town  in  jvhich  they  reside,  and  was  until  recently  the  name  of 
their  Post-Office.  The  latter  is  now  Kichville. 


HAY   BACKS,   ETC. 


231 


back  on  its  hinges  as  when  grain  or  roots  are  being  put  in  the 
trough  (c,)  or  the  trough  is  being  cleaned  out. 

The  advantages  of  this  rack  are,  1,  That  it  prevents 
crowding  as  well  as  the  slatted  box-rack ;  2,  That  it  prevents 
sheep  from  thrusting  their  heads  and  necks  into  the  hay,  as 
they  can  do  to  some  extent  in  the  slatted  box-rack,  thereby 


END   VIEW   OF   WALL   BACK. 


getting  dust,  hay-seeds  and  chaff  into  their  wool  ;  3,  That  it 
almost  entirely  prevents  the  hay  which  is  pulled  from  the 
inside  rack  from  being  dropped  under  foot  and  wasted  ;  *  4, 
That  it  combines  the  advantages  of  a  good  stationary  feeding- 
trough  with  the  rack  ;  5,  That  the  trough,  apai't  from  its 
ordinary  uses,  is  found  very  convenient  to  keep  hay-seed  out 
of  the  manure  when  it  is  is  desirable  to  do  so,  and  to  catch 
and  save  hay-seed  for  use. 

WATER  FOR  SHEEP  IN  WINTER.  —  Sheep,  and  particu- 
larly sheep  fed  Avith  roots,  will  do  very  well  in  winter  without 
water  if  they  have  a  constant  supply  of  clean  snow  ;  but  that 
supply  can  never  be  relied  on.  And  when  watered  at  a  pump 
or  stream  a  portion  of  the  time,  they  (particularly  pregnant 

*  A  considerable  quantity  is  wasted  from  all  slanting  racks  with  small,  close 
rounds  (like  the  inside  rack  /,  in  the  cut  ;)  and  some  is  thus  wasted  even  from  the 
slatted  box  rack.  A  sheep  on  being  jostled  by  another,  steps  back  from  the  rack 
frequently  dragging  out  quite  a  lock  of  hay,  which  is  immediately  trodden  under  foot 
and  hardly  ever  picked  up. 


232  WATER    FOE    SHEEP    IN    WINTER. 

ewes)  suffer  if  again  forced  to  depend  exclusively  on  eating 
snow.  Consequently,  a  regular  supply  of  water  throughout 
the  winter  should  be  regarded  as  indispensable.  It  becomes 
still  more  so,  where  sheep  are  housed  and  yarded.  In  winter 
climates  cold  enough  frequently  to  congeal  water,  the  most 
convenient  arrangement,  where  it  is  practicable,  is  to  bring 
it  directly  into  the  sheep  barn,  by  means  of  underground 
pipes  from  a  spring  or  dam  of  sufficient  elevation  to  force  it 
up  into  tubs.  These  should  be  placed  in  the  middle 
partitions,  (as  seen  in  the  two  plans  of  sheep  barns  in 
the  preceding  Chapter,)  so  that  each  tub  shall  supply  two 
flocks  of  sheep.  If  different  tubs  are  supplied  from  the  same 
spring,  each  must  have  a  different  pipe,  or  else  the  tubs  must 
be  at  different  elevations,  so  that  a  waste  pipe  from  the 
higher  one  will  go  up  into  the  bottom  of  and  fill  the  lower 
one.  When  the  surplus  water  is  finally  discharged  into  the 
ground,  it  should  be  by  a  waste-pipe  emptying  into  a  deep, 
well-made  drain,  which  will  never  become  clogged.  An 
accumulation  of  ice  in  a  sheep  stable,  or  any  overflow  of 
water  into  the  bedding,  would  be  a  nuisance  far  more  than 
overbalancing  all  the  conveniences  of  indoor  watering.  The 
tubs  should  rise  but  a  few  inches  above  the  floor,  and  should, 
if  they  have  much  depth,  have  well  secured  but  movable  covers 
to  prevent  sheep  and  lambs  from  falling  into  them — the  covers 
having  holes  cut  through  them  barely  large  enough  to  enable 
the  sheep  to  drink.* 

Two  plans  for  outdoor  watering  are  given  in  the  ground 
plan  at  page  217.  As  I  have  already  stated,  I  decidedly 
prefer  that  which  exhibits  two  wells  and  pump-houses  (at/", 
/,)  because  free  egress  from  all  the  yards,  independently  of 
each  other,  could  thus  be  much  more  conveniently  secured. 
Each  well  or  cistern  should  be  fitted  with  a  pump  of  a 
construction  which  forces  up  water  very  rapidly,  and  which 
does  not  admit  of  its  being  frozen  in  the  body  of  the  pump, 
if  some  special  precaution  chances  to  be  forgotten.  Small 
pump  houses,  which  can  be  shut  tight  and  provided  with 
proper  conductors  to  the  troughs,  guard  against  numerous 
accidents  to  pumps,  prevent  ice  accumulating  inconveniently 
about  them,  and  render  it  so  comparatively  comfortable  to 
water  sheep  in  very  cold  and  blustering  weather,  that  there  is 


*  As  the  tubs  are  constantly  forced  full  of  water  the  sheep  need  not  even  put  its 
head  through  the  cover  to  drink  ;  and  elliptical  holes  through  it  4K  by  5  or  5yt  inches, 
for  the  mere  insertion  of  the  nose,  are  all  that  is  required.  If  the  tub  waters  two 
ames  shold  have  two  holes  on  each  side. 


, 
apartments  it  should  have  two  holes  on  each 


CONSUMPTION    OF    FOOD    IN   WINTER.  233 

much  greater  probability  of  its  being  properly  attended  to. 
Some  persons  place  sheds  over  the  troughs  also,  to  prevent  snow 
from  accumulating  about  them,  and  to  offer  greater  induce- 
ments to  the  sheep  to  visit  them  in  stormy  weather.  The 
troughs  are  placed  lengthwise  with  and  under  the  fence  (as 
at  e,  in  cut  page  217,)  or  crosswise  with  the  ends  projecting 
(as  aty,  y,  in  same  cut.)  If  the  sheep  are  watered  pretty 
early  in  the  day,  the  water  will  generally  be  lowered  so 
often  by  drinking  that  thick  ice  will  not  form  over  it,  and 
the  sheep  will  usually  keep  drinking  holes  open.  But  the 
shepherd  should  look  to  this ;  and  in  severely  cold  weather  he 
should  water  the  flock  two  or  three  times  a  day,  (so  that  all 
will  be  likely  to  drink  once,)  and  then  by  withdrawing  a  plug 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trough,  let  off  the  water  into  a  drain 
underneath. 

A  brook  of  sufficient  volume  and  current  not  to  freeze 
deeply,  brought  near  to  the  sheep  yards,  is  an  admirable 
addition  to  a  sheep  farm,  both  in  summer  and  winter ;  and 
when  it  can  be  had,  no  other  mode  of  watering  is  necessary. 
The  banks  at  the  drinking  places  should  be  so  sloped  that 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  a  number  drinking  at  once,  and 
no  liability  of  a  sheep  being  crowded  off  a  high  bank  or  into 
deep  water ;  and  the  approach  to  and  bottom  of  the  drinking 
place  should  be  thoroughly  gravelled.  I  should,  however, 
consider  such  a  brook  bought  quite  too  dearly,  if  the  sheep 
were  compelled  to  wade  through  it  whenever  they  entered  or 
left  their  yards  —  even  if  the  water  did  not  usually  exceed 
three  or  four  inches  in  depth.  Every  approach  to  the  yards, 
crossed  by  a  stream,  requires  a  bridge. 

AMOUNT  OF  FOOD  CONSUMED  BY  SHEEP  IN  WINTER. — 
It  is  now  generally  estimated  that,  taking  the  average  of 
winter  weather  in  our  Northern  States,  American  Merino  and 
grade  Merino  sheep  kept  exclusively  on  hay,  require  about 
one  pound  of  good  hay,  or  its  equivalent,  per  diem,  for  every 
30  Ibs.  of  their  own  live  weight — to  be  kept  in  that  plump 
condition  somewhat  short  of  fatness,  which  is  usually  regarded 
as  the  most  desirable  one  for  store  sheep.  Mr.  Spooner 
adopts  the  same  rule  in  regard  to  the  consumption  of  English 
sheep.  * 

VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  FODDERS. — In  most  of  the  Eastern 
and  Southern  counties  of  New  York,  in  similar  regions  of 

*  He  says  "  sheep  grown  up  take  3 1-3  per  cent,  of  their  weight  in  hay  per  day  to 
keep  in  store  condition."  Spooner  on  Sheep  p.  217. 


234  NUTRITIVE    .EQUIVALENTS. 

Pennsylvania  and  throughout  New  England  —  the  grazing 
region  proper  of  the  older-settled  Northern  States  —  the 
favorite  meadow  hay  for  sheep  is  produced  by  sowing  about 
three  parts  of  timothy  (Phleum  pratense)  to  one  of  red  clover, 
(Trifolium  pratense?)  The  first  and  second  years,  the  clover 
is  in  excess,  but  after  that  it  only  appears  in  moderate  quan- 
tities ;  and  in  the  meantime  many  spontaneous  clovers  and 
grasses  come  in,  such  as  June  or  spear  grass,  (Poa  pratensis,} 
white  clover,  (Trifolium  repens,)  red -top  or  herds -grass 
(Agrostis  vulgaris)  in  moist  places,  and  various  others  in  minor 
quantities  and  in  special  situations,  such  as  the  rough-stalked 
meadow  grass,  (Poa  trivialis,}  rye  or  ray  grass,  (Lolium 
perenne,}  and  several  of  the  fescue  grasses.  For  sheep,  this 
collection  of  grasses  and  clover  is  cut  down  rather  early  and 
cured  as  bright  as  possible.  Where  meadows  are  not 
brought  into  a  course  of  arable  husbandry,  and  are  only 
plowed  at  long  intervals,  no  better  hay  could  be  obtained 
from  the  soil;  and,  indeed,  better  would  hardly  seem 
desirable.  But  those  who  have  tested  it,  know  that  red 
clover  cut  early  and  cured  bright  is  preferred  by  sheep,  and 
will  fatten  them  more.  It  is  a  prevailing  impression,  too, 
among  clover  growers,  that  it  more  specially  conduces  to  the 
secretion  of  milk  when  fed  to  breeding  ewes. 

NUTRITIVE  EQUIVALENTS. —  But  it  is  not  economical  in 
most  situations,  to  winter  sheep  exclusively  on  any  kind  of  hay. 
There  are  incidental  products  raised  with  other  crops  which 
are  regarded  as  necessary  in  even  that  limited  extent  of  mixed 
husbandry  which  is  practiced  on  our  sheep  farms,  such  as 
corn-stalks,  the  straws  of  the  different  grains,  pea-haulm,  etc., 
which  must  be  consumed  in  part  by  the  sheep,  or  be  wasted  ; 
and  there  are  other  crops  which,  like  turnips  and  beets,  are, 
so  far  as  they  can  properly  be  fed,  vastly  cheaper  than 
hay.  Moreover,  a  well-selected  variety  in  food  is  better, 
other  things  being  equal,  than  uniformity :  because  the 
different  products  furnish  more  of  all  the  different  substances 
which  go  to  form  wool  and  meat.  It  is,  therefore,  incumbent 
on  the  intelligent  sheep  farmer  carefully  to  study  both  in 
theory  and  practice,  the  effect  of  each  of  the  kinds  of 
available  food,  separately  or  in  combination,  to  produce  these 
results.  Agricultural  Chemistry  has  made  new  and  important 
disclosures  in  this  particular ;  and  though  its  theoretical 
deductions  cannot  be  implicitly  relied  on,  owing  to  excep- 
tional or  incidental  circumstances  which  have  thus  far  eluded 


NUTRITIVE   EQUIVALENTS. 


235 


detection,  still  they  usually  approximate  sufficiently  near  to 
the  truth  to  be  of  great  value  to  the  farmer.  Before  offering 
any  comments  on  them,  I  will  proceed  to  lay  some  of  these 
before  the  reader,  in  connection  with  a  very  valuable  table  of 
experimental  deductions. 

TABLE    OF   NUTRITIVE   EQUIVALENTS. 


Theoretical  values  according  to 

Practical  values,  as  es 
iug  experiments,  ace 

mated  by  direct  feed- 
ording  to 

« 
I 

\ 

ii 

100 

100 

200 

20( 

lit: 

201 

M 

5 

I 

| 

, 

lot 

100 

1QO 

1 

1 

1(10 

I 

100 
90* 
442 
195 

"374 
153 
308 
339 

.... 

"45 
45 

Meadow  hay 

101 

47  Si 
ss: 

4C,( 
42< 

a 

101 

77 
527 
44f 
471 
ttl 

<Ki 

an 

IS! 

ax 

100 
150 

151 
150 

loo 
90 

r,r,r 

191 
151 
451 

4d( 
:;0( 
201 
73 
66 

loo 

100 
,",50 
200 
201 

151 
251 
264 

251 
20( 
4( 

100 

lied  Clover  hay,  ... 

Kye  straw,          

2f>7 
200 
200 
2;^; 

Oat  straw,                      

401 
40( 

.... 

Wheat  straw 

Swedes 

201 

271 
201 

88 

54 

":! 

34 

Ml 

366 
21  ( 
B 
B 

41  H 
2r,( 
201 
54 
54 
<V 

22; 
150 
50 
48 

"338 

•ft 

366 

.•win 

200 
30 
30 

Carrots, 

as 

"•>•. 

2- 
70 

"  "  50 

Peas 

| 

9 

(14 

t 

§ 

6 

£ 

~( 

r>< 

35 
37 
33 
30 

54 
59 

"45 
105 

Oats                                    .  .- 

ft 

7 

81 

Tii 

Kye, 

5 
5 

G 
8 

a 
2 

5 
5 

B 

51 
46 

G 

50 

40 

Wheat 

Linseed  cake,  

a 

4 

10 

*  When  blossom  is  completely  developed. 

To  this  Mr.  Rham  adds  the  following  as  equivalents  of 
100  pounds  of  "  good  hay  :" — 102  Ibs.  latter-math  hay ;  88  Ibs. 
of  clover  hay  made  before  the  blossom  expands  ;  98  Ibs.  of 
clover  of  second  crop ;  98  Ibs.  Lucerne  hay ;  89  Ibs.  sanfoin 
hay;  91  Ibs.  tare  hay;  146  Ibs.  of  clover  after  the  seed;  410 
Ibs.  of  green  clover;  457 Ibs.  of  green  vetches  or  tares; 
541  Ibs. of  cow  cabbage  leaves;  504  Ibs.  turnips;  50  Ibs.  vetches; 
167  Ibs.  of  wheat,  peas  and  oat  chaff* 

No  one  will  understand  that  because  a  certain  weight  of 
one  product  is  a  nutritive  equivalent  for  a  certain  weight  of 
another,  that  each  will  necessarily  answer  as  a  substitute  for 

*  Rev.  W.  Rham's  statements  are  not  made  from  his  own  experiments,  but  Mr. 
Spooner  (from  whom  I  borrow  this  column  of  the  above  table,)  says  they  were  trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  him,  and  are  "  the  mean  of  the  result  of  the  experiments  made 
by  some  of  the  most  eminent  agriculturists  of  Europe  in  the  actual  feeding  of  cattle." 


236 


PRODUCTS    OF    DIFFERENT   FEEDS. 


the  other  in  feeding.  For  example,  taking  the  mean  of  the 
experimental  results  in  the  above  table,  367f  Ibs.  of  rye  straw 
contain  as  much  nutriment  as  100  Ibs.  of  meadow  hay.  A 
Merino  sheep  weighing  90  pounds,  daily  consumes  3  pounds  of 
hay :  and  to  consume  its  equivalent  in  rye  straw,  it  would 
have  daily  to  masticate,  digest,  etc.,  a  fraction  over  eleven 
pounds  of  it  —  a  feat  impracticable  for  a  variety  of  reasons, 
and  among  others  for  the  very  obvious  one  that  its  stomachs 
could  not  be  made  to  hold  it,  even  though  digestion  should  go 
on  with  twice  its  natural  rapidity. 

The  experiments  made  in  feeding  Saxon  sheep  in  Silesia, 
by  Reaumur,  show  in  what  manner  the  nutritive  parts  of 
certain  ordinary  vegetable  products  enter  into  the  compo- 
sition of  different  animal  products. 


KINDS  OP  FOOD. 

Increased 
live  weight  of 
animal. 

Produced 
wool. 
Ibs.    oz. 

Produced 
tallow. 
Ibs.    oz. 

Per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  in 
such  food 

1,000  Ibs.  raw  potutocs  with  salt 
1,000  "  "  "  without  salt 
1,000  "  raw  mangel  wurzel  . 
1,000  "  peas 

46^ 
44 
38 
134 

6       8%. 
6       8 
5       3« 
14      11 

12       5% 
10      14% 
6       5K 
41        6 

0.3(i 
0.36 
0.21 

1  000  "  wheat 

155 

13      13^ 

59  9 

2  09 

1  000  "  rye  with  salt 

90 

13      14>£ 

35  11M 

2  00 

1,000  "  rye  without  salt  
1,000  "  oats  ..  ;  

83 
146 

12      10>i 
9      12 

33  8,^ 
40  8 

2.00 
1  70 

1  000  "  barley 

136 

11             6^2 

60  1 

1  90 

1  000  "  buckwheat 

120 

10        4% 

2  10 

68 

1       10  'a 

12  14 

1,000    "    hay  with  straw,  with- 
out other  fodder  
1,000    "    whisky  still  grains  or 
wash  -  

31 
35 

15       8 
6       1 

6      11 
4       0 

At  first  view,  there  is  a  degree  of  incongruity  between  the 
theoretical  and  practical  results  exhibited  in  the  first  of  the 
above  tables,  which,  without  due  reflection,  might  materially 
tend  to  impair  our  confidence  in  the  accuracy  of  the  tests 
which  are  relied  on  in  agricultural  chemistry.  But  a  further 
glance  discloses  the  fact  that  these  results  do  not  differ  more 
widely  from  each  other  than  those  obtained  by  practical 
experiments.  How  are  we  to  explain  these  latter  incongrui- 
ties? If  the  results  of  actual  experiments  —  experiments, 
too,  conducted  with  care  by  men  possessing  unusual  ability 
and  means  to  do  so  understandingly  and  accurately  —  differ 
so  widely,  what  then?  Are  we  thence  to  conclude  that 
experience  is  worth  nothing,  or  that  nature  acts  without 
any  uniform  laws  ?  —  that  every  agricultural  result,  whether 
successful  or  unsuccessful,  depends  upon  chance  —  or  that 
fatality  which  is  expressed  in  the  delusive  and  detestable 
word  "luck?" 


VALUE    OF   DIFFERENT  FEEDS.  237 

The  explanation  of  such  differences  is,  in  truth,  easy 
enough.  The  experiments  were  tried  in  different  soils  and 
seasons.  Variations  in  the  latter,  every  one  kpows,  highly 
affect  the  comparative  nutritiousness  of  vegetable  products. 
And  unfortunately,  too,  the  standard  taken,  hay,  is  the  subject 
of  special  variations.  To  say  nothing  of  the  natural  difference 
in  the  nutritiousness  of  the  various  kinds  of  grasses,  which, 
when  cut  and  cured,  are  termed  "meadow  hay,"  we  know 
that  the  same  kinds  grown  in  a  wet  or  diy  season  —  cut  a 
week  earlier  or  a  week  later  —  cured  rapidly  in  the  sun, 
slowly  in  the  cock,  or  slower  still  and  with  difficulty  during 
wet,  cloudy  weather  —  vary  very  essentially  in  quality  and 
nutriment.  Take,  for  a  single  example,  the  main  meadow 
grass  of  the  northern  portions  of  the  United  States,  viz., 
timothy,  (Phleum  pratense.)  According  to  the  Woburn 
experiments,*  64  drachms  of  it  green  give,  when  cut  and 
cured  in  the  flower,  2  dr.  2  gr. ;  in  the  seed,  5  dr.  3  gr. ; 
latter-math,  2  dr.  Thus,  a  difference  of  two  weeks  in  the 
time  of  making  timothy  hay  might  cause  a  difference  of  more 
than  100  per  cent,  in  the  amount  of  nutriment  it  contains !  f 

While  it  is  unfortunate  that  no  unvarying  standard  can  be 
obtained,  or  fixed  set  of  conditions  agreed  upon  and  observed, 
in  the  trial  of  this  class  of  agricultural  experiments,  still  there 
is  quite  as  much  accord  in  their  results  as  we  are  accustomed 
to  find  in  the  opinions  of  sound,  intelligent,  practical  farmers 
in  regard  to  any  of  the  experimental  facts  of  farming,  which 
they  have  been  familiar  with  all  their  lives.  We  do  not 
disregard  the  opinions  of  such  men  because  they  differ.  And 
if  we  find  them  all  pointing  towards  the  same  conclusion,  we 
accept  that  conclusion  as  one  beyond  reasonable  doubt.  This 
is  the  light  in  which  the  statements  contained  in  the  Table  of 
Nutritive  Equivalents,  on  page  235,  should  be  regarded. 
When,  for  example,  scientific  theory  declares  that  clover  hay, 
pound  for  pound,  contains  more  nutriment  than  meadow  hay, 
and  when  out  of  six  careful  and  intelligent  practical  experi- 
ments, three  also  find  it  more  nutritious,  and  the  other  three 
equally  so,  we  are  bound,  as  reasonable  men,  unless  we  have 

*  Made  some  years  since  by  Sinclair,  on  soils  best  adapted  to  each  kind  of  grass, 
on  the  estate  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  at  Woburn,  England. 

t  But  to  prevent  mistakes  let  me  add,  that  it  makes  no  snch  difference  in  the 
practical  value  of  timothy  as  sheep  fodder.  In  the  seed  it  is  a  dry,  tough,  unpalatable 
feed  for  them— and  no  good  sheep  farmer  intentionally  cuts  it  in  that  state  for  his 
flocks.  This,  however,  in  no  wise  affects  the  particular  fact  under  consideration.  It 
is  to  be  presumed  that  timothy  composed  no  inconsiderable  share  of  the  meadow  hay 
assumed  as  a  standard  by  Block,  Petri,  Von  Thaer,  Boussinganlt,  etc.— but  in 
neither  instance  are  we  informed  whether  it  was  cut  in  the  flower  or  in  the  seed. 


238  COST   AND    ECONOMY    OP    DIFFERENT   FEEDS. 

better  proof  to  the  contrary,  to  admit  its  equality  and  presume 
its  superiority.  When  science  and  such  an  array  of  practice 
combine  to  pronounce  peas  and  beans  about  equal  with  eacli 
other,  and  among  the  most  nutritious  of  vegetable  products, 
we  ought  to  adopt  that  conclusion,  if,  indeed,  we  did  not 
already  know  so  notorious  a  fact.  Accordingly,  as  few  sheep 
farmers  are  able  to  make  all  these  experiments  for  themselves 
in  advance  of  trying  them  directly  on  the  body  of  their  flocks, 
all  ought  to  see  the  expediency  of  a  very  careful  study  of 
such  a  table  of  Nutritive  Equivalents  as  the  preceding  one. 

Reaumur's  experiments,  given  on  page  236,  are  also 
especially  valuable :  and  it  is  only  to  be  wished  that  their 
accuracy  had  also  been  tested  by  numerous  other  experiments 
directed  to  the  same  specific  objects  of  inquiry.  Still,  I  have 
great  general  confidence  in  them.  Some  of  the  facts  he 
arrives  at  are  very  striking,  as,  for  instance,  the  superiority 
of  peas  over  every  other  vegetable  substance  named  in  his 
list,  in  the  specific  production  of  wool,  while  barley  and 
wheat  considerably  exceed  it,  and  oats  nearly  equal  it,  in  the 
production  of  tallow.  And  a  still  more  striking  fact  is  found 
in  the  increase  of  wool  and  diminution  of  tallow  produced  by 
adding  straw  to  "good  hay"  as  a  habitual  food.  If  there  is 
no  mistake  in  this  showing,  it  is  a  high  point  of  policy  in  the 
wool  grower  to  feed  straw,  and  in  the  mutton  grower  to 
avoid  feeding  it. 

This  brings  me  to  another  very  important  consideration, 
viz.,  the  relative  cost  and  general  economy  of  the  different 
kinds  of  feeds.  According  to  Reaumur's  Table,  1,000  pounds 
of  peas  produce  134  pounds  live  weight  of  carcass,  14  pounds 
11  ounces  of  wool,  and  41  pounds  6  ounces  of  tallow,  while 
1,000  pounds  of  mangel  wurzel  produce  38  pounds  of  live 
weight,  5  pounds  3^-  ounces  of  wool,  and  6  pounds  5^  ounces 
of  tallow.  Thus  the  latter  produces  between  a  third  and  a 
fourth  as  much  live  weight,  a  little  more  than  a  third  as  much 
wool,  and  nearly  a  seventh  as  much  tallow.  Peas  weigh  60 
Ibs.  to  the  bushel.  If  we  assume  that  mangel  wurzels  weigh 
the  same,*  four  bushels  of  them  will  produce  more  live  weight 
and  weight  of  wool  than  one  bushel  of  peas.  Not  being  per- 
sonally familiar  with  the  culture  of  mangel  wurzel,  I  will,  for 
the  purposes  of  this  illustration,  substitute  Swedish  turnips 

*  This  is  the  statutory  weight  of  a  bushel  of  potatoes  in  New  York,—  but  no 
weight  is  prescribed  for  other  roots.  I  have  never  raised  or  weighed  a  bushel  of 
mangel  wurzels — but  there  cannot  be  difference  enough  between  their  weight  and 
that  of  potatoes  to  make  any  material  difference  for  the  purposes  of  the  comparison 
instituted  in  the  text. 


EXPERIMENTS   IN   FEEDING   SHEEP.  239 

for  them — which,  by  the  united  testimony  of  the  experimenters 
given  in  the  table  of  Nutritive  Equivalents,  contain  more 
nutriment.  Which  is  most  cheaply  produced,  one  bushel  of 
peas  or  four  bushels  of  Swedes  ?  An  acre  of  ground  is 
thought  to  do  unusually  well  in  the  region  where  I  reside,- 
that  produces,  one  year  with  another,  25  bushels  of  peas. 
That  acre  does  very  poorly  that  does  not  produce  500  bushels 
of  Swedes*  —  20  bushels  for  one  of  peas.  The  difference  in 
the  cost  of  preparing  the  ground,  cultivating  the  crop  and 
harvesting,  is  considerable ;  but  it  makes  no  approach  to  the 
difference  in  the  product  of  nutriment.  Oats  compare 
equally  unfavorably  with  turnips  on  the  score  of  economy. 

I  wish  to  show  by  such  facts  as  the  above,  that  the  sheep 
farmer  in  determining  what  crops  he  will  grow  for  the  winter 
keep  of  his  sheep,  is  not  merely  to  estimate  the  relative  value 
of  feeds  per  pound,  but  to  ascertain  how  he  can  provide  the 
most  nutriment  suitable  for  sheep,  at  a  given  cost.  Knowing 
the  adaptation  of  his  farm  to  the  different  products,  and  the 
cost  to  himself  of  producing  each,  every  intelligent  farmer 
can,  better  than  anybody  else  for  him,  institute  comparisons 
like  the  above,  between  all  the  products  named  in  the 
preceding  tables. 

The  following  records  of  experiments  in  feeding  are  from 
Mr.  Robert  Smith's  essay  "  On  the  Management  of  Sheep," 
which  received  the  prize  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England,  in  1847: 

"Experiment  No.  1. —  On  the  20th  of  December,  1842, 
idght  lambs  were  weighed  and  placed  upon  the  regular  turnip 
land,  (a  red  loam,  with  cold  subsoil,)  to  consume  the  turnips 
where  they  grew,  and  were  regularly  supplied  with  what  cut 
Swedes  they  would  eat,  which  proved  to  be  on  an  average  of 
23^  pounds  per  day.  They  were  again  weighed  on  the  3d 
of  April,  1843,  being  15  weeks,  and  found  to  have  gained, 
upon  an  average,  during  the  time,  25  £  pounds  each. 

"  No.  2. —  On  the  same  day  eight  lambs  were  placed  in  a 
grass  paddock,  under  the  same  regulations,  and  found  to  have 
consumed,  on  an  average,  19  Ibs.  of  turnips  per  day,  and 
gained,  during  the  time,  26f  Ibs.  each. 

"  No.  3. —  On  the  same  day,  eight  lambs  were  placed 
alongside  the  No.  2  lot  in  the  grass  paddock,  and  allowed  to 
run  in  and  out  of  an  open  shed  during  the  day,  but  regularly 
shut  up  at  night.  They  were  allowed  half  a  pound  of  mixed 

*  I  think  my  own  crops  have  averaged  at  least  700  or  800  bushels  to  the  acre,  for  a 
period  of  15  years  or  more ;  and  one  year  they  exceeded  1,100  bushels  per  acre. 


240  EXPERIMENTS   IN   FEEDING   SHEEP. 

oil  cake  and  peas  each  per  day,  and  consumed  20£  pounds  of 
turnips  per  day,  and  gained  33^  pounds  each. 

"  No.  4. —  On  the  same  day,  eight  lambs  were  placed 
with  the  Nos.  2  and  3  lots  in  the  grass  paddock,  under  the 
same  regulations  as  No.  3,  but  supplied  with  one  pound  of 
mixed  corn*  per  day.  They  consumed  20  pounds  of  turnips 
per  day,  during  the  following  ten  weeks,  being  again 
weighed  on  the  28th  of  February,  1843,  and  gained,  on  an 
average,  26-£  pounds  each. 

"No.  5. —  Eight  lambs  were  also  placed  in  a  warm 
paddock,  with  a  shed  to  run  under  during  the  day,  but  were 
shut  up  at  least  18  hours,  and  fed  upon  l£  Ibs.  of  mixed  corn 
per  day,  and  consumed  18£  Ibs.  of  turnips  per  day.  They 
were  again  weighed  at  the  same  time  as  No.  4,  and  found  to 
have  gained  33  £  pounds  each  during  the  ten  weeks. 

"No  6. —  On  the  5th  of  January,  1843,  sixteen  shearlings 
were  equally  divided,  and  eight  placed  upon  a  grass  paddock, 
and  allowed  one  pound  of  mixed  corn  each  per  day.  They 
consumed  24  pounds  of  Swedish  turnips  each  lot  per  day. 
They  were  again  Aveighed  on  the  2d  of  March,  being  eight 
weeks,  and  were  found  to.  have  gained  21^  pounds  each. 

"  No.  7. —  On  the  same  day  the  other  eight  shearlings 
were  placed  alongside  the  No.  6  in  the  grass  paddock,  and 
allowed  one  pound  of  mixed  corn  each,  and  consumed  20^ 
pounds  of  turnips  per  day.  They  were  allowed  an  open  shed 
to  run  under  during  the  day,  and  regularly  shut  in  at  nights — 
and  again  weighed  at  the  same  time  as  No.  6,  and  were 
found  to  have  gained  24  pounds  each  during  the  eight  weeks. 

"  No.  8. —  On  the  third  of  April,  the  eight  lambs  (No.  3,) 
having  been  weighed,  were  placed  upon  young  clover,  and 
supplied  with  half  a  pound  of  mixed  corn,  as  before.  They 
consumed  12  Ibs.  of  turnips  per  day  during  the  following 
month.  Being  again  weighed  on  the  1st  of  May,  they  were 
found  to  have  gained  llf  Ibs.  each.  They  had  a  shed  to  run 
under  during  the  day,  and  were  shut  up  at  night. 

"No.  9.—  On  the  29th  of  May,  the  eight  lambs  (No.  8,) 
were  again  weighed,  having  been  allowed,  as  before,  half  a 
pound  of  mixed  corn  upon  the  clover,  but  no  turnips,  with  a 
shed  to  run  under  at  will.  They  were  found  to  have  gained 
16  Ibs.  each  during  the  month. 


*  Wherever  the  word  "corrf"  occurs  in  this  record  of  experiments,  it  is  to  be 
understood  in  its  general  sense  of  grain'  and  the  mixed  grain,  referred  to  by  Mr. 
Smith,  did  not  even  include  Indian  corn  —  that  not  being  one  of  the  grain  crops  of 
England. 


EXPERIMENTS    IN   FEEDING    SHEEP.  241 

"  To  prove  the  temperature  of  the  animal  body  during  the 
hot  weather,  I  placed  the  two  lots  of  shearlings,  No.  6  and 
No.  7,  upon  moderate  clover  on  the  1st  of  July,  1843. 

"No.  10. —  The  eight  shearlings,  (No.  6,)  were  weighed, 
and  allowed  one  pint  of  peas  per  day,  and  again  weighed  at  the 
the  end  of  21  days,  and  were  found  to  have  gained  9£  Ibs.  each. 

"No.  11.—  The  eight  shearlings,  (No.  7,)  were  also 
weighed,  and  given  one  pint  of  old  beans  per  day,  and  again 
weighed  at  the  same  time,  and  were  found  to  have  gained  6 
Ibs.  each,  the  peas  appearing  most  suitable  to  the  animal 
temperature  during  the  hot  weather,  and  the  beans  far  too  hot. 
What  is  more  important,  those  sheep  fed  upon  beans  were 
getting  full  of  humors  in  this  short  space  of  time,  while 
those  fed  upon  peas  were  looking  exceedingly  healthy. 

"In  the  autumn  of  1843,  after  making  the  above  experi- 
ments, I  determined  upon  testing  the  qualities  of  the  various 
vegetables  open  to  our  use  at  that  season  of  the  year.  On 
the  2d  of  October,  1843,  thirty  lambs  were  equally  divided 
into  lots  of  ten  each,  and  placed  upon  over-eaten  seeds.  They 
were  all  weighed,  and  the  roots  regularly  given  them  by  an 
experienced  shepherd. 

"No.  12. —  Ten  lambs,  fed  upon  cut  white  turnips,  were 
again  weighed  on  the  13th  of  November,  and  were  found  to 
have  gained,  upon  an  average,  11  Ibs.  each. 

"  No.  13. — Ten  lambs,  fed  upon  cut  Swedes,  gained  during 
the  six  weeks,  upon  an  average,  11  Ibs.  each. 

"No.  14.  —  Ten  lambs  fed  upon  cut  cabbage,  gained 
during  the  time,  16^-  pounds  each,  showing,  as  I  fully 
expected,  a  preference  in  favor  of  cabbage ;  but,  to  my  equal 
surprise,  a  great  difference  in  favor  of  the  white  turnip  over 
the  Swede.  By  subsequent  experiments  I  found,  as  the  cold 
weather  advanced,  the  cabbage  and  white  turnip  became  of 
less  value,  and  that  the  Swede  improved. 

"  In  the  autumn  of  1844,  having  placed  my  ram  lambs  in 
their  winter  quarters,  and  observing  that  those  placed  upon 
cole-seed  were  going  on  apparently  the  best,  I  determined  to 
weigh  a  part  of  them  in  comparison  with  those  placed  in  pens 
upon  grass  land ;  consequently,  on  the  14th  of  October,  1844, 
the  following  lots  were  weighed,  as  in  previous  experiments, 
the  ten  upon  the  cole-seed  being  selected  from  24  others, 
marked,  and  again  placed  with  them: 

"No.  15. —  Ten  lambs  penned  upon  cole-seed,*  with  cut 

*  A  species  of  cabbage. 

11 


242  EXPERIMENTS    IK    FEEDING    SHEEP. 

clover  chaff,  were  again  weighed  at  the  end  of  one  month, 
and  found  to  have  gained  12^-  pounds  each. 

"No.  16. —  Ten  lambs  penned  upon  drum-head  cabbage, 
with  cut  clover  chaff,  and  weighed  as  above;  they  gamed 
10£  pounds  each. 

"No.  17. —  Ten  lambs  placed  upon  grass  and  fed  upon  cut 
Swedes  and  cabbage,  of  equal  quantities,  with  clover  chaff, 
gained  9f  Ibs.  each. 

"No.  18. —  Ten  lambs  placed  upon  grass  and  fed  upon  cut 
white  turnips  and  cabbage,  of  equal  quantities,  with  clover 
chaff,  gained  11  Ibs.  each. 

"  Having  frequently  given  my  lambs  carrots  during  the 
winter  and  spring  months,  and  to  no  apparent  advantage, 
when  compared  with  other  roots,  I  determined  to  test  their 
qualities  after  the  expiration  of  the  above  experiments,  and  the 
No.  16  lot  were  supplied  with  what  Swedes  they  would  eat, 
and  the  No.  17  lot  with  carrots. 

"No.  19. —  Ten  lambs,  fed  upon  cut  Swedes  and  clover- 
chaff,  having  been  weighed  at  the  end  of  the  other  experi- 
ment, were  again  weighed  on  the  9th  of  December.  They 
were  found  to  have  gamed  during  the  month  10  Ibs.  each, 
and  consumed  22  Ibs.  of  turnips  per  day. 

"No.  20. —  Ten  lambs  fed  upon  cut  carrots  and  clover- 
chaff,  were  weighed  as  above  on  the  9th  of  December,  and 
were  found  to  have  gained  9£  Ibs.  each,  and  consumed  22^ 
Ibs.  of  carrots  per  day. 

''Thus  proving  that  the  carrot  can  not  be  given  to  sheep 
with  equal  profit,  when  compared  with  the  Swede  turnip,  the 
carrot  being  more  expensive  and  hazardous  in  its  cultivation, 
and  producing  rather  less  animal  food  from  a  given  weight 
at  this  season  of  the  year." 

I  shall  place  a  further  list  of  English  experiments  in 
winter  feeds  in  the  appendix  of  this  volume.  * 

Turnips  are  not  adapted  either  to  the  soil  or  circumstances 
of  all  parts  of  our  country  where  sheep  are  kept.  I  have  been 
informed  by  many  of  the  farmers  in  those  regions  of  Vermont 
where  the  best  sheep  are  raised,  that  this  crop  does  not  flourish 
on  their  farms,  f  And  it  would  be  folly  to  bring  turnips  into 
competition  with  Indian  corn,  as  a  habitual  winter  feed,  in 
our  Western  States,  where  the  latter  crop  can  be  raised  for 

*  See  APPENDIX  C. 

t  I  raised  this  question  once  in  the  presence  of  a  number  of  the  leading  sheep 
breeders  of  Addison  county  —  the  first  sheep  breeding  county  in  the  State  —  and 
they  without  an  exception  concurred  in  the  opinion  stated  in  the  text. 


MIXED    FEEDS   FOB   SHEEP.  243 

ten  or  fifteen  cents  a  bushel.  But  I  know  of  no  cheaper  feed, 
except  the  last ;  and  that  does  not  approach  turnips  in 
cheapness,  on  lands  equally  suited  to  their  respective  produc- 
tion in  the  Middle  or  Eastern  States.  In  all  the  latter 
situations  —  even  in  those  interior  regions  where  the  price  of 
hay  has  hitherto  averaged  less  than  $8  a  tun  —  it  is  more 
economical  to  feed  turnips  with  hay  and  straw,  than  it  is  to 
feed  hay  alone.  I  have  established  that  fact  to  my  own 
satisfaction  by  the  experience  of  many  years. 

The  beet  is  not  included  in  the  above  English  experiments, 
and  I  have  never  used  it  as  sheep  feed  myself.  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain brought  a  variety  of  it  with  his  sheep  from  Silesia,  and  is 
satisfied  of  the  economy  and  high  utility  of  the  crop — but 
has  not,  so  far  as  I  am  informed,  tested  it  in  comparison  with 
turnips.  My  friend,  Hon.  George  Geddes,  of  Fairmount, 
New  York,  has  cultivated  the  same  kind  of  beets,  and  also 
turnips,  for  sheep  feed.  On  his  soils  (among  the  best  in  the 
State)  he,  thus  far,  gives  preference  to  the  beet.  He  has  not 
instituted  any  comparisons  between  them  by  weighing 
respectively  feed  and  product  —  but  as  a  farmer  who  has  no 
superior  in  our  country  in  both  the  theory  and  practice  of  his 
occupation,  his  observations,  although  unaided  by  such  tests, 
are  entitled  to  very  great  weight.  Carrots  have  failed  as 
sheep  feed  in  this  country,  for  the  same  reasons  assigned  by 
Mr.  Robert  Smith  for  their  failure  in  England.  Rape  is 
cultivated  by  a  few  of  our  growers  of  English  sheep,  and  is 
thought  highly  of  by  them.  Tares  and  cole  seed  are  unknown 
to  the  great  body  of  our  sheep  farmers,  and  I  am  not  aware 
that  common  cabbage  is  cultivated  by  any  of  them  as  a  field 
crop  for  sheep. 

MIXED  FEEDS. —  In  making  up  mixed  feeds  for  sheep, 
composed  of  the  different  products  which  are  found  most 
available  and  economical,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
proportion  of  nutriment  to  bulk  such  that  a  proper  supply  of  the 
former  can  be  taken  into  the  stomach,  without  oppressing  that 
organ.  It  has  been  seen  that  3£  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight  per 
diem  in  hay,  about  meets  the  demands  of  the  animal  economy; 
and  it  probably  also  about  fills  the  stomach  to  a  comfortable 
state  of  fullness.  If  then  a  sheep  weighing  90  Ibs.  received  half 
its  nutriment  in  hay  and  half  in  the  better  kinds  of  straw 
(which  contain  half  as  much  nutriment  as  hay,)  it  would  be 
required  to  consume  1|-  Ibs.  of  hay  and  3  Ibs.  of  straw  daily 
—  an  aggregate  of  4£  M>s.,  which,  I  think,  could  not  be 


244  MIXED    FEEDS    FOB   SHEEP. 

daily  taken  into  and  digested  in  the  stomach  of  a  sheep  of 
that  size.  Therefore,  to  put  sheep  on  half  straw  feed,  it  is 
necessary  that  some  other  portion  of  their  feed  be  more 
concentrated,  or  more  nutritious  in  proportion  to  bulk  than 
hay  —  as,  for  example,  grain  or  roots  —  or  else  they  will  not 
get  their  proper  supply  of  nutriment. 

My  own  course,  when  feeding  straw,  has  been  to  give  a 
feed  of  hay  at  morning  and  evening,  (intended  to  average 
about  a  pound  per  head  each  time,)  all  the  straw  the  sheep 
will  eat  and  about  a  pound  of  cut  turnips  each,  at  noon  —  the 
latter  being  a  little  increased  if  the  hay  and  straw  are  not  of 
prime  quality.  But  I  do  not  often  give  over  two  bushels,  or 
120  Ibs.  of  turnips,  to  a  hundred.  Hay  here  does  not  average 
$8  a  ton ;  and  though  I  regard  feeding  turnips  as  economical, 
my  major  object  in  growing  and  feeding  them  is  to  promote 
the  health  and  thrift  of  my  breeding  ewes,  and  the  growth  of 
my  lambs. 

Some  excellent  sheep  farmers  on  grain  and  clover -seed 
farms  lying  a  few  miles  north  of  me  —  where  a  contiguous 
city  market  raises  the  average  price  of  hay  about  50  per  cent, 
higher  than  here  —  give  their  store  sheep  no  hay  until  March, 
feeding  them  in  lieu  of  it,  bright,  good  straw  in  abundance, 
clover  chaff,*  and  a  daily  feed  of  Indian  corn  ranging  from  one 
and  a  half  to  two  gills  per  head,  according  to  their  size  and  to 
other  circumstances.  The  straw  and  grain  chaff  are  generally 
fed  fresh  from  the  thrashing  floor  half  a  dozen  times  a  day, 
and  the  sheep  are  not  required  to  eat  it  at  all  close.  After 
the  first  of  March  a  full  supply  of  bright  clover  hay  is  given 
and  the  grain  feed  taken  oft'.  The  sheep,  as  I  have  had 
repeated  occasion  to  observe,  winter  well,  and  the  breeding 
ewes  raise  good  lambs. 

I  do  not  believe  that  breeding  ewes  or  lambs  could 
properly  be  fed  enough  straw  and  turnips  —  particularly  if 
the  straw  was  dry  and  ripe  —  to  obtain  the  equivalent  of  a 
full  supply  of  hay.  If  turnips  are  fed  in  excess,  they  render 
the  evacuations  too  thin  and  active  for  severely  cold  weather. 
But  a  pound  a  head  given  to  straw-fed  sheep  with  a  little 
diminution  of  the  corn  otherwise  requisite,  would,  I  think, 
constitute  a  better  and  cheaper  feed  than  entire  corn  and 
straw. 

The  comparative  nutriment  of  the  different  kinds  of  straw 
has  been  given  in  the  table  on  page  235.  Oat  and  barley 

*  That  is,  what  is  left  of  clover  after  thrashing  or  hulling  — a  black,  unpromising 
looking  mass. 


FATTENING    SHEEP    IN    WINTEIt.  245 

straw  cut  quite  green  and  cured  bright,  are  highly  relished  by 
sheep.  I  had  rather  have  them  (particularly  if  thrashed  with 
a  flail  so  that  a  few  small  green  kernels  remain  in  the  ends  of 
the  heads,)  than  hay  in  the  situation  in  which  it  is  frequently 
cured  for  use.  Wheat  straw  ranks  next,  among  the  common 
varieties  of  straw.  Sheep  do  not  relish  it,  and  will  not  eat  it 
very  well  if  they  get  any  hay.  But  when  confined  to  it  and 
grain,  they  learn  to  eat  it  and  thrive  on  it.  They  must  not, 
however,  be  compelled  to  eat  it  as  close  as  oat  and  barley 
straw.  Ripe  rye  straw,  unless  cut  fine  and  mixed  with  meal, 
is  a  dry,  harsh,  unprofitable  and  wholly  unacceptable  food  to 
sheep.  All  straws  are  eaten  much  better  by  them  when  fresh 
thrashed  and  fed  frequently  in  small  quantities. 

Corn-stalks  are  contained  in  neither  of  the  preceding 
tables  of  nutrition.  When  cut  and  cured  bright,  before  frost,  no 
feed  is  better  relished  by  sheep  than  the  leaves  and  some  finer 
portions  of  the  stalks :  and  they  thrive  admirably  on  them. 

Pea-haulm,  if  cut  and  cured  green,  is  highly  valuable 
and  is  highly  relished  by  sheep ;  but  when  not  harvested  until 
dried  up  and  dead  —  according  to  the  more  common  mode  — 
it  is  utterly  worthless  for  them. 

In  seasons  of  great  scarcity  of  hay  and  straw,  sheep  have 
been  repeatedly  and  successfully  wintered  by  feeding  them 
almost  exclusively  on  grain.  Such  a  "  hay-famine  "  occurred 
in  the  best  sheep  region  of  Vermont,  in  the  winter  of  1860-61, 
occasioned  by  a  severe  drouth  the  preceding  summer.  Flock- 
masters  who  were  determined  to  keep  well  at  all  hazards,  fed 
their  sheep  a  pound  (or  quart)  of  oats  per  head,  with  such 
quantities  of  hay,  straw,  etc.,  as  they  could  obtain.  In  better 
Indian  corn  growing  regions,  a  pound  of  corn  a  day  is  given 
under  like  circumstances. 

FATTENING  SHEEP  IN  WINTER. —  The  present  ordinary 
mode  of  fattening  sheep  in  winter  in  New  York,  is  thus 
described  in  a  letter  to  me  from  John  Johnston,  Esq.,  of 
Geneva,  New  York,  who  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
experienced  feeders,  as  well  as  grain  farmers  in  the  United 
States : 

"  I  generally  buy  my  sheep  in  October.  Then  I  have  good 
pasture  to  put  them  on,  and  they  gain  a  good  deal  before 
Avinter  sets  in.  I  have  generally  had  to  put  them  in  the  yards 
about  the  first  of  December.  For  the  last  23  years  I  have 
fed  straw  the  first  two  or  two  and  a  half  months,  a  pound  of 
oil  cake,  meal  or  grain  to  each  sheep.  When  I  commence 


246  REGULARITY    IN    FEEDING. 

feeding  hay,  if  it  is  good,  early  cut  clover,  I  generally  reduce 
the  quantity  of  meal  or  grain  one-half;  but  that  depends  on 
the  condition  of  the  sheep.  If  they  are  not  pretty  fat,  I 
continue  the  full  feed  of  meal  or  grain  with  their  clover,  and 
on  both  they  fatten  wonderfully  fast.  This  year  (1862-3)  I 
fed  buckwheat,  a  pound  to  each  per  day,  half  in  the  morning 
and  half  at  4  o'clock  P.  M.,  with  wheat  and  barley  straw.  I 
found  the  sheep  gained  a  little  over  a  pound  each  per  week. 
It  never  was  profitable  for  me  to  commence  fattening  lean 
sheep,  or  very  fat  ones.  Sheep  should  be  tolerably  fair  mutton 
when  yarded.  I  keep  their  yards  and  sheds  thoroughly 
littered  with  straw. 

"  Last  year  I  only  fed  straw  one  month.  The  sheep  were 
fed  a  pound  of  buckwheat  each.  From  the  20th  of  October 
to  the  1st  of  March,  they  gained  nearly  l£  pounds  each  per 
week.  They  were  full-blood  Merinos  —  but  not  those  with 
the  large  cravats  around  their  necks.  I  have  fed  sheep  for 
the  eastern  markets  for  more  than  30  years,  and  I  always 
made  a  profit  on  them  except  in  1841-2.  I  then  fed  at  a  loss. 
It  was  a  tight  squeeze  in  1860-1  to  get  their  dung  for  profit. 
Some  years  I  have  made  largely.  I  did  so  this  year,  (1862-3,) 
and  if  I  had  held  on  two  weeks  longer  I  should  have  made 
much  more.  Taking  all  together  it  has  been  a  good  business 
for  me." 

Mr.  Johnston  by  under-draining*  and  by  the  manure 
obtained  by  fattening  sheep,  has  almost  created  one  of  the 
finest  farms  in  New  York.  I  think  his  land  is  not  adapted 
to  turnips. 

REGULARITY  IN  FEEDING. — The  utmost  regularity  should 
be  observed  in  the  times  of  feeding  either  store  or  fattening 
sheep,  and  in  giving  them  just  the  requisite  amount  to  last 
them  until  the  next  feeding.  If  permitted  to  waste  hay,  they 
rapidly  acquire  the  habit  of  doing  so  —  i.  e.,  picking  out  the 
best  and  then  waiting,  even  though  quite  hungry,  for  another 
feed.  If  the  hay  is  coarse  and  was  cut  over-ripe,  and 
especially  if  clover  hay  be  thus  circumstanced,  it  is  not 
profitable  to  compel  the  sheep  to  eat  all  the  orts  or  refuse ; 
but  even  with  such  hay,  sheep  can  soon  be  taught  by  over- 
feeding and  carelessness,  to  make  a  most  unnecessary  degree 
of  waste. 

All  experienced  flock-masters  concur  in  the  opinion  that 

*  He  is  the  father  of  underground  tile-draining  in  the  United  States. 


REGULARITY   IN  FEEDING  —  SALT.  247 

sheep  fed  with  perfect  regularity  as  to  time  and  amount 
(making  proper  allowance  for  the  weather,)  will  do  better  on 
rather  inferior  keep,  than  on  the  best  without  that  regularity. 
I  prefer  feeeding  three  times  a  day  even  in  the  shortest 
days  of  winter  ;  but  many  good  flock  -  masters  feed  but  twice. 
If  fed  three  times,  it  should  be  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  an  hour 
before  dark  ;  if  but  twice,  the  last  feeding  should  be  an  hour 
earlier.  Sheep  do  not  stand  at  their  racks  and  eat  well  in 
the  dark.  It  is  not  very  important  at  what  period  of  the  day 
grain  or  roots  are  given  provided  the  time  is  uniform. 

SALT. — Salt  is  not  perhaps  quite  as  necessary  to  the  health 
of  sheep  in  winter  as  in  summer,  but  still  all  good  shepherds 
regard  it  as  indispensable.  It  should  be  fed  as  often  as  once 
a  week,  in  the  feeding  troughs,  or  by  brining  a  quantity  of 
hay  or  straw.  The  Vermont  breeders  almost  universally 
keep  it  standing  constantly  before  their  sheep  in  boxes  placed 
in  the  sheep- houses.  My  friend  Gen.  Otto  F.  Marshall,  of 
Steuben  County,  New  York,  has  an  excellent  and  economical 
mode  of  feeding  it.  The  orts  when  taken  from  the  sheep 
racks  are  thrown  into  a  box -rack  wider  and  considerably 
higher  than  the  common  ones,  and  placed  under  a  shed.  The 
orts  are  sprinkled  with  brine,  and  the  sheep  when  hungry 
for  salt  go  to  the  ort  rack  and  consume  them.  Thus  all 
the  hay  is  saved. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

PEAIEIE  SHEEP  HTJSBANDEY. 

PRAIRIE     MANAGEMENT   IN   SUMMER LAMBING  —  FOLDS    AND 

DOGS  STABLES  HERDING  WASHING  SHEARING  

STORING    AND    SELLING   WOOL TICKS PRAIRIE     DISEASES 

SALT WEANING     LAMBS PRAIRIE     MANAGEMENT     IN 

WINTER WINTER   FEED SHEDS    OR    STABLES WATER 

LOCATION    OF    SHEEP    ESTABLISHMENT. 

THE  growing  of  sheep  is  rapidly  increasing  in  nearly  all 
the  new  States  of  the  Union  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in 
those  which  lie  on  its  east  bank  north  of  the  Ohio.*  In  all 
these  States  are  immense  tracts  of  natural  pasturage,  usually 
lying  in  the  form  of  level  or  rolling  prairies — but  occasionally 
in  broken  tracts  containing  hills  of  considerable  elevation. 
The  grasses  which  grow  on  them  are  invariably  found  to  be 
well  adapted  to  the  support  of  domestic  animals. 

It  has  already  been  ascertained  by  direct  experiment  that 
flocks  of  sheep  will  obtain  their  support  throughout  the  entire 
year,  from  these  natural  pastures,  as  far  north  as  33  deg.  in 
Central  and  Western  Texas.  Ascending  north  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi,  the  necessity  for  artificial  winter  feed 
gradually  increases  until  in  latitude  40  deg. — about  the  range 
of  St.  Joseph  in  Missouri,  and  Springfield  in  Illinois  —  it  is 
required  through  six  months  of  the  year.  But  the  domestic 
grasses  will  flourish  a  month  longer  there,  so  that  the  period 
of  dry  foddering  is  restricted  to  about  five  months. 

Ascending  north  from  Texas  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific, 
the  temperature  decreases  less  rapidly.  The  variation  of  the 
isothermal  line  (the  line  of  equal  mean  heat)  on  the  shores  of  that 
ocean  and  of  the  Mississippi  river,  has  been  popularly  claimed 
to  equal  ten  degrees.  While  there  are  yet  few  settled  data 
to  enable  us  to  draw  definite  general' conclusions  on  the 

*  For  Census  of  sheep  and  products  of  wool  in  all  the  States  and  Territories 
anterior  to  18(53,  see  APPENDIX  D. 


TEMPERATURE    OP   PRAIRIE   STATES.  249 

subject,  the  thermometrical  observations  already  taken  do 
not  authorize  the  conclusion  that  the  difference  is  so  great.  I 
have  picked  out  the  following  examples  of  the  annual  mean 
heat  at  such  points  in  Texas,  on  the  Mississippi,  and  on  the 
Pacific,  as  came  nearest  to  the  regions  I  wished  to  compare  in 
this  particular,  from  the  multifarious  tables  contained  in  the 
Report  of  "The  Results  of  Meteorological  Observations 
made  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office 
and  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  1854  to  1859  inclusive."* 

Latitude.  1854.  1855.  1856.  1857.  1858.  1859. 

New  Braunfols,t  Texas, 29°.42/  64.61  68.85      70.07 

Austin,  Texas, 30.20  64.43  65.84  64.64  65.85  67.53  68.08 

San  Francisco,  California, 38.00  55.28  57.43  56.23      

Sacramento,  California, 38.34  59.51  60.03  60.01  59.58  58.74 

St.  Louis,  Missouri, 38.37  58.37  53.42  53.42  56.69  55.45 

Ottawa,  Illinois, 41.20  51.69  48.94  48.15  45.88  49.01  48.37 

It  will  be  observed  that  while  the  mean  heat  of  St.  Louis 
and  Sacramento,  in  almost  identically  the  same  latitude,  varies, 
on  the  average,  4.22  degrees,  there  is  a  much  greater  propor- 
tionable difference  in  the  mean  heat  of  Sacramento  and 
Ottawa,  which  for  six  years  averages  11.02  deg.  J  These 
facts  render  it  obvious  that  the  seasons  of  pasturage  must  be 
materially  longer  on  our  Pacific  coast,  than  in  corresponding 
latitudes  on  the  Mississippi. 

In  all  the  newer  States  there  are  lands  covered  by  natural 
pastures  which  are  exceedingly  cheap.  In  most  of  them  it  can 
be  purchased  in  any  quantities  for  $1.25  an  acre.  In  the  older 
prairie  States,  like  Illinois,  Missouri  and  Wisconsin,  desirable 
tracts  would  cost  considerably  more  —  but  still  very  greatly 
less  than  grazing  lands  of  half  their  fertility  in  the  old  North 
and  North-eastern  States. 

But,  in  reality,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  wool  grower  now, 
nor  will  it  be  for  many  years  to  come  —  in  most  of  the  above 
States — either  to  own  or  pay  rent  on  a  great  proportion  of  the 
lands  depastured  by  his  sheep.  We  have  no  redundant  popu- 
lation ready  to  take  up  with  lands  which  are  destitute  of  any 
of  the  essential  requisites  demanded  by  the  settler.  The 
comparative  lack  of  wood  and  of  running  water  in  the  in- 
terior of  these  vast  western  plains,  prevents  them  from  being 

*  Published  by  order  of  the  Senate,  1861. 

t  New  Braunfels  is  about  twenty-five  miles  by  a  direct  line  north-east  of  San 
Antonio,  and  lies  on  the  southern  border  of  the  sheep  growing  region  proper,  of 
Western  Texas.  It  was  rather  the  head-quarters  of  Mr.  G.  W.  Kendall's  difl'erent 
Sheep  establishments. 

%  To  facilitate  other  comparisons  I  will  here  give  the  mean  temperature  of  several 
Of  the  points  named  in  the  table :— Austin,  66.39  mean  of  6  years ;  Sacramento,  59.09 
jiean  of  6  years  ;  St.  Louis,  55.47  mean  of  5  years ;  Ottawa,  48.67  mean  of  6  years. 
11* 


250  COST    OF   KEEPING    ON    PRAIKIES. 

gettled,  except  on  the  edges  and  on  water  courses ;  and  all  the 
Bheep  farmer  needs  in  such  situations  is  sufficient  land  for  his 
buildings,  grain  fields,  and, —  as  his  wealth  and  conveniences 
increase  —  for  pastures  of  artificial  grass  for  the  early  spring 
and  late  fall  feed  of  his  sheep.  When  the  banks  of  the 
streams  and  the  clumps  of  wood-land  are  occupied  by  settlers, 
they,  in  effect,  have  the  permanent  control  of  the  interior 
pasturage,  often  many  miles  in  extent.  I  have  been  informed 
of  instances  in  Texas  where  an  individual,  or  a  small  party  of 
individuals,  have  bought  a  narrow  strip  on  each  bank  of  a  river 
for  a  number  of  miles,  and  thus  prevented  the  sale  of  and  actually 
threw  out  of  market  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  which 
were  by  this  means  cut  off  from  all  access  to  water,  without 
traveling,  perhaps  for  miles,  to  the  next  river  bank.  But,  in 
truth,  the  vast  extent  of  our  Prairie  lands  defies  all  attempts 
at  monopoly.  Even  in  a  State  comparatively  as  old  as  Illinois 
—  containing  at  the  last  census  a  population  of  over  one 
million  seven  hundred  thousand  persons,  and  probably 
now  containing  50,000  sheep*  —  immense  tracts  of  land, 
owned  in  part  by  the  Government,  but  principally  by  non- 
resident owners,  ("  speculators,")  lie  open  and  free  to  the  use 
of  all ;  and  there  is  now  actually  a  class  of  nomadic  shepherds 
in  that  State  who  keep  flocks  of  sheep,  sometimes  numbering 
upward  of  two  thousand  each,  who,  in  the  words  of  the  dying 
Son  of  the  Mist,  "  Take  no  hire  —  give  no  stipend  —  build  no 
hut  —  inclose  no  pasture  —  sow  no  grain."  These  men  are 
generally  industrious  Germans,  who,  after  serving  flock- 
masters  as  shepherds  for  a  year  or  two,  invested  their 
earnings  in  enough  sheep  to  commence  flocks  of  their  own. 
They  follow  their  sheep  by  day  over  the  prairies,  herding 
them  in  little  temporary  inclosures  at  night  to  protect  them 
from  wolves  and  dogs.  In  the  fall  they  buy  a  field  of  corn, 
drive  their  sheep  to  it  for  the  winter,  and  in  the  spring 
resume  their  wanderings. 

In  all  the  new  Western  States,  sheep  have  been  found  to 
acclimate  without  the  least  difficulty,  f  In  Texas  in  the 
extreme  South,  in  Minnesota  in  the  extreme  North,  in  Cali- 
fornia in  the  extreme  West,  and  in  every  intermediate  region 
where  they  have  been  introduced,  sheep  remain  signally 
healthy,  thrive  to  the  highest  degree,  produce  as  much  wool 

*  By  the  United  States  Census  of  1860,  there  were  then  33,822  sheep  in  Illinois 
and  they  have  increased  much  more  rapidly  than  ever  before,  since  that  period. 

t  For  a  letter  showing  how  sheep  are  got  into  the  new  States  — how  a  sheep 
establishment  is  started  —  and  how  the  first  winter  is  got  over,  see  APPENDIX  E. 


PROFITS    OF.  SHEEP    ON   THE    PKAIRIES.  251 

per  head  if  as  well  fed,  as  in  the  old  Eastern  States,  and  the 
wool  is  not  deteriorated  in  any  apparent  or  real  quality. 

It  can  require  no  formal  array  of  facts  to  show  that  the 
profits  of  sheep  husbandry  on  the  prairies  must  greatly  exceed 
those  obtained  in  States  lying  further  east,  where  the  land  is 
no  better  and  costs  from  five  to  fifty  times  as  much.  It  seems 
now  also  to  be  a  conceded  fact  that  the  profits  of  sheep 
production  decidedly  exceed  those  of  horse,  cattle,  or  swine 
production  on  the  prairies. 

The  surplus  wheat  and  Indian  corn  of  the  West  finds  its 
market  on  the  eastern  sea-board.  It  generally  costs  half  of 
the  crop  of  wheat,  and  from  five-sixths  to  six-sevenths  of  the 
crop  of  corn  to  transport  the  remainder  to  New  York  by  rail 
in  the  winter,  from  regions  lying  no  further  west  than  the 
east  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  It  costs  less  than  two  cents  a 
pound  to  transport  wool,  which,  at  the  average  prices  of  wool 
for  thirty-five  years  preceding  the  present  war,  is  less  than 
two  forty-seconds  of  the  value  of  the  medium,  and  two  thirty- 
fifths  of  the  value  of  the  coarse  article.  By  the  Mississippi,  or 
by  the  northern  river,  lake  and  canal  navigation  which  is  avail- 
able in  summer,  the  transportation  of  the  heavy,  bulky  Western 
products  is  considerably  less.  But  when  a  pound  of  wool  is 
worth  on  the  farm  about  as  much  as  four  bushels  of  corn,  and 
when  that  amount  of  corn  is  more  than  fifty  times  as  bulky, 
and  two  hundred  and  twenty-four  times  as  heavy*  as  a  pound 
of  wool,  there  must,  under  any  circumstances,  remain  an 
insuperable  obstacle  to  the  comparative  profitableness  of 
corn  as  a  marketable  product  —  and  indeed  of  all  other  bulky 
and  heavy  products,  f 

*  In  some  of  the  States  the  weight  of  corn  is  established  at  56  Ibs.,  in  others, 
58  Ibs.  per  bushel. 

t  Since  the  above  was  in  the  hands  of  the  publisher,  the  articles  on  sheep,  in  the 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  have  fallen  under  my  eye,  and  I  find  the 
following  statements  in  an  article  on  "  Sheep  on  the  Prairies,"  by  Hon.  J.  B.  Grinnell, 
of  Grinnell,  Iowa:  —  "At  any  point  two  hundred  miles  from  Chicago  this  ratio  of  cost 
in  freighting  is  well  established  ;  that  to  transport  your  products  to  the  seaboard,  on 


,  .  . 

gross  on  wool  4  per  cent.  This  is  not  conjecture,  but  my  own  experience,  that  I  give 
80  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  my  wheat  which  impoverishes  my  farm,  to  find  a  market  ; 
and  4  per  cent,  to  find  the  best  wool  market,  the  production  of  which  enriches  my 


wheat  you  pay  80  per  cent,  of  its  value  ;  on  pork  30  per  cent.;  on  beef  20  per  cent.; 
wool  4  per  cent.    This  is  not  conjecture, 

per 
acres  beyond  computation." 

The  following  statements  occur  in  a  paper  entitled  "Sheep  Husbandy  in  the 
West,"  by  Samuel  Boardman,  of  Lincoln,  Logan  county,  Illinois  :—"  With  wheat 
worth  sixty-five  cents  per  bushel,  it  costs  one  bushel  to  send  another  from  Central 
Illinois  to  market.  With  corn  at  ten  cents  per  bushel,  it  takes  over  six  bushels  to 
carry  the  one  to  New  York.  It  costs  one  cent  and  two-thirds  of  a  cent  to  send  a 
pound  of  wool  to  New  York  ;  less  than  two  cents  will  carry  fifty  cents'  worth  of  wool 
to  market  ;  to  carry  fifty  cents'  worth  of  corn  costs  about  three  dollars.  In  my  own 
case,  I  could  haul  my  wool  to  New  York  in  less  time  than  I  could  haul  the  corn  I  feed 
to  my  sheep  in  the  winter  six  miles  to  the  railroad,  and  I  could  also  haul  the  wool  to 
New  York  cheaper  than  I  could  ship  the  corn  by  rail.  Even  in  this  State,  with  its 


252  PRAIRIE    MANAGEMENT   IN    SUMMER. 

Prairie  sheep  husbandry  has  the  same  general  features 
everywhere,  in  the  summer.  In  the  winter  there  are  essential 
differences  in  its  operations  in  regions  of  perennial  verdure, 
like  Western  Texas,  and  in  those  of  six  or  seven  months 
verdure,  like  Central  Illinois,  Northern  Missouri  and  Kansas. 
I  shall  proceed  briefly  to  describe  the  proper  summer  manage- 
ment in  all  these  regions,  and  the  different  systems  of  winter 
management  in  the  North  and  South.  It  will  not  be 
necessary  to  enter  upon  details,  except  when  the  management 
differs  from  that  of  the  older  regions  already  described  in 
this  work. 

PRAIRIE  MANAGEMENT  IN  SUMMER. — In  latitude  40  deg., 
in  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  —  the  latitude  of  Central  Illinois 
and  Northern  Missouri  —  sheep  can  generally  find  subsistence 
on  the  prairies  after  about  the  middle  of  April.  As  soon  as 
the  new  grass  sprouts  in  the  smallest  degree,  the  immense 
range  supplies  them  with  food. 

LAMBING. —  Lambs  in  the  last  named  regions,  where  they 
are,  as  it  is  termed,  "  raised  on  the  range,"  —  i.  e.,  where  the 
ewes  are  kept  on  the  open  prairie  during  the  lambing  season 
—  are  not  allowed  to  commence  coming  before  the  1st  of 
May,  when  the  feed  is  expected  to  be  abundant,  and  the 
danger  of  cold  storms  greatly  over.  Lambing  on  the  range, 
however,  is  at  best  attended  with  great  labor  and  care  to  the 

his  charge. 
_  ewes  is  a 
hich  compel 

their  being  turned  out  on  the  prairies  to  lamb  —  the  want  of 
suitable  inclosures  seeded  to  domestic  grasses  —  also  prevents 
any  division  of  flocks.  When  from  thirty  to  fifty  lambs  are 
dropped  a  day,  it  is  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  get  the  younger 
and  weaker  ones  to  the  folds  within  the  proper  time  at  night, 
or  on  the  appearance  of  a  storm,  without  separating  them 
from  their  dams.  When  such  separation  takes  place,  near 
nightfall,  and  twenty  or  thirty  ewes  are  then  running  through 
the  flock  bleating  distractedly  for  their  young,  it  produces  a 
scene  of  wild  confusion ;  lambs  are  run  over  and  trampled  on ; 
the  ewes,  in  the  increasing  darkness,  do  not  find  their  lambs  ; 


more  than  three  thousand  miles  of  railroad,  wool-growing  is  more  profitable  than 
wheat  and  corn,  onr  great  items  of  export.  How  much  more,  then,  is  it  in  the  great 
portion  of  the  North-west,  which  does  not  now,  and  may  not  for  many  years,  possess 
the  questionable  advantages  of  railroads  with  which  to  market  wheat  or  corn  in 
the  raw  state  ?" 


LAMBING FOLDS STABLES.  253 

if  new  dropped  and  not  well  filled  with  milk,  the  latter  are 
liable  to  perish  before  morning  in  cold  weather ;  and  when 
morning  comes  some  of  the  ewes,  particularly  young  ones, 
never  again  recognize  their  lambs.  The  small  portable  pens 
recommended  at  page  159,  would  not  be  available  here, 
because  they  would  not  keep  out  the  wolf.  All  folding  pens 
on  the  prairies  require  to  be  five  or  six  feet  high  for  that 
purpose.  I  am  not  aware  that  it  has  been  tried,  but  I  am 
well  satisfied  that  three  or  four,  or  half  a  dozen  temporary 
pens,  according  to  the  size  of  the  flock,  put  up  on  different 
parts  of  the  range,  each  of  which  would  conveniently  hold 
half  a  dozen  sheep,  and  into  which  the  shepherd  should  be 
getting  the  youngest  lambs  and  their  dams  some  time  befose 
nightfall,  would  amply  pay  for  themselves  in  one  stormy 
lambing  season  —  while  they  might  be  made  to  last  through 
a  man's  life.  * 

FOLDS  AND  DOGS. — A  permanent  fold  for  the  night,  unless 
a  good  sheltered  one,  affords  so  few  advantages  and  produces 
so  many  disadvantages,  that  it  is  highly  desirable  to  dispense 
with  it  at  all  times,  and  particularly  in  lambing  time,  if  any 
other  way  can  be  found  to  guard  the  flock  from  wolves  and 
dogs.  This  is  effectually  done  in  other  countries  by  means  of 
suitable  breeds  of  sheep  dogs.  The  immense  utility  of 
introducing  some  of  these  varieties  into  our  prairie  States,  and 
changing  the  system  of  folding,  would  seem  to  be  obvious. 
Some  information  on  this  subject  will  be  offered  in  the 
Chapter  on  Dogs. 

STABLES. —  But  by  far  the  best  place  for  lambing,  in 
northern  prairie  climates,  is  an  inclosed  field  of  domestic 
grass,  immediately  about  sheltered  close  sheds  or  stables, 
which  can  be  used  as  occasion  requires.  A  large  flock  ought, 
for  obvious  reasons,  if  it  is  rendered  practicable  by  the 
number  of  the  fields,  to  be  divided  into  smaller  flocks  —  or 

*  It  would  be  best  to  make  them  with  materials  prepared  and  kept  for  tha 
express  purpose.    I  should  think  it  would  be  very  convenient  to  construct  them  o 
four  lengths,  or  panels  of  light,  strong  fence,  capable  of  being  put  together  withou 
nails.     Ten  or  twelve  feet  boards  might  be  inserted  in  mortices  or  grooves  in  corne 
posts,  the  upper  and  lower  boards  being  fastened  in  them  by  movable  pins.     Tl: 
corner  posts  of  these  lengths  might  be  fastened  together  by  hooks  and  staples.     Tin 
four  lengths  would  form  a  pen  of  10  or  12  feet  square.     This  could  be  covered  as  far  ; 
desirable  —  a  great  improvement  for  inclement  weather  —  by  boards  two  feet  longc 
than  the  side  boards.    This  would  form  a  pen  which  could  be  set  up,  or  takon  in 
pieces  and  loaded  in  a  cart,  by  tw<?  men  in  less  than  half  an  hour,  without  any  injury 
to  the  materials.    The  materials  snould  of  course  be  piled  away  under  cover  when 
not  in  use. 


254  PRAIRIE   MANAGEMENT IIEUDING,    ETC. 

else  the  ewes  having  the  older  lambs  ought  to  be  frequently 
taken  out  and  put  by  themselves.  In  other  respects,  the 
general  management  should  substantially  comport  with  that 
practiced  in  the  Eastern  States. 

HERDING. —  From  the  period  of  lambing  to  that  of 
washing  and  shearing,  there  are  no  peculiarities  in  prairie 
management  except  in  herding.  The  great  art  of  doing  this 
well,  is  to  get  out  the  sheep  as  soon  as  it  is  light  in  the 
morning ;  to  conduct  them  to  the  best  pasturage ;  to  follow 
them  about  patiently,  never  losing  sight  of  them,  and  allowing 
them  to  spread  as  far  as  is  prudent  over  the  face  of  the 
prairie  ;  to  avoid  all  unnecessary  dogging ;  to  avoid  huddling 
them  together  with  the  dogs  to  enable  the  shepherd  to  take  a 
siesta  or  attend  to  something  else ;  to  keep  them  out  until 
there  is  barely  enough  time  to  fold  them  before  dark ;  and, 
finally,  to  fold  them  at  night  carefully,  gently  and  securely. 

WASHING. —  Some  prairie  flocks  are  necessarily  driven 
from  five  to  ten  miles  to  reach  running  streams  or  "branches," 
as  they  are  termed  in  the  West,  in  which  they  can  be 
conveniently  washed ;  and  owing  to  the  level  surfaces  of  most 
prairie  regions,  they  generally  have  to  be  washed  without  any 
dams,  and  frequently  in  quite  sluggish  water.  But  washing 
is  considered  particularly  necessary  on  account  of  the  stained 
condition  of  the  wool.  The  wild  grasses  on  prairies  grow  up 
in  separate  stools  or  tufts,  and  do  not  sod  over  the  ground 
like  domestic  grasses.  Consequently  the  hoofs  of  the  sheep 
detach  the  dirt  in  hot,  dry  weather,  and  it  adheres  to  the 
wool  as  they  lie  down  on  it,  or  as  it  rises  in  clouds  of  dust 
under  their  feet.  The  sheep  are  usually  washed  at  intervals, 
in  parcels  of  800  or  1,000  each,  so  they  can  all  be  sheared  at 
about  the  same  periods  after  washing,  before  the  wool  again 
becomes  dirt -stained. 

SHEARING. —  Shearing  is  performed  from  a  week  to  two 
weeks  after  washing.  It  is,  or  at  least  ought  to  be,  con- 
ducted in  the  same  general  way  as  in  the  older  States.  The 
present  practice  is  to  pay  hands  five  cents  a  head  for 
shearing,  and  they  shear  from  thirty  to  sixty  sheep  per  day. 

STORING  AND  SELLING  WOOL. — Few  prairie  AVOO!  growers 
have  yet  constructed  wool  houses;  and  like  growers  every- 
where else,  most  of  them  wish  to  obtain  the  avails  of  their 


PRAIRIE   SHEEP   DISEASES.  255 

wool  as  soon  as  practicable  after  shearing.  The  clip 
generally  remains  in  the  barn  a  few  days,  and  if  not  sold,  is 
sacked  and  sent  to  some  eastern  city  market. 

TICKS. —  Prairie  sheep  generally  suffer  but  little  trouble 
from  ticks,  because  they  are  kept  in  high  condition  the  year 
round.  But  wherever  these  parasites  obtain  a  foothold,  they 
should  be  promptly  exterminated. 

PRAIRIE  DISEASES. —  Scab  is  by  far  the  most  formidable 
disease  of  sheep  on  the  prairies,  owing  to  its  highly  contagious 
character  and  to  the  labor  it  costs  to  eradicate  it  from  large 
flocks  running  together.  My  attention  has  also  been  very 
frequently  called  by  Texas  correspondents  to  some  minor 
forms  of  cutaneous  disease,  believed  also  to  be  infectious, 
which  prevail  in  that  State.  Both  of  these  maladies,  and 
thejr  proper  treatment,  will  be  considered  in  a  subsequent 
portion  of  this  work.  Hoof-rot,  the  greatest  scourge  of  the 
flocks  of  New  England,  New  York,  etc.,  does  not  yet  appear 
to  establish  itself  on  the  prairies.  It  is  claimed,  and  no  doubt 
is  true,  that  flocks  to  some  degree  affected  with  this  disease 
in  the  Eastern  States,  on  being  driven  to  the  prairies  lose  all 
traces  of  it.  That  this  is  true  in  respect  to  sheep  taken  to 
the  Southern  and  Southwestern  States,  I  know  from  my  own 
experience.  The  hoof-rot  was  introduced  into  my  flocks 
about  twelve  years  since,  when  I  was  receiving  numerous 
orders  for  sheep  from  those  States.  Having  got  the  disease 
subdued  as  far  as  practicable,  for  the  time,  I  shipped  several 
lots  to  Virginia,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  apprising  the 
purchasers  of  the  facts,  and  making  myself  responsible  for  the 
consequences,  by  offering  to  refund  the  purchase  money  if  the 
sheep  should  again  exhibit  the  disease.  I  requested  to  be 
informed  of  their  first  lameness:  and  whether  lame  or  not, 
to  be  informed  of  their  condition  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
months.  Not  one  of  the  sheep  again  exhibited  a  trace  of 
hoof-rot,  or  lameness  of  any  kind ;  and  their  thriftiness  was 
the  occasion  of  especial  remark.  Before  I  exterminated  the 
disease  from  my  flocks,  I,  in  like  manner,  sent  colonies  to 
nearly  or  quite  every  Southern  State,  except  Florida,  to  all 
the  Southwestern  States,  and  the  Indian  Territory  on  the 
headwaters  of  the  Arkansas,  and  always  with  the  same  result. 

I  am  disposed  to  attribute  this  immunity  from  the  disease 
in  the  South  to  the  dry,  sandy,  permeable  character  of  the 
soils,  and  to  the  dust  which  the  sheep's  foot  constantly  comes 


256  PRAIRIE    MANAGEMENT   IN   WINTER. 

in  contact  with,  in  dry  weather,  between  the  stools  of  grass 
in  the  natural  pastures.  If  the  disease  does  not  appear  on  the 
western  prairies,  I  shall  be  disposed  to  attribute  it  to  the 
same  causes,  where  both  exist,  or  entirely  to  the  last.  During 
active  stages  of  the  malady,  dry  dust  might  rather  aggravate 
its  symptoms  than  otherwise ;  but  it  has  long  been  known 
that  it  will  "  dry  up  "  and  cure  the  old  and  partly  subdued 
ulcers  of  the  feet.  Eastern  farmers  sometimes  drive  their 
sheep  over  dusty  roads  for  this  express  purpose. 

I  am  not  aware  that  there  are  any  other  serious  ovine 
maladies  which  are  either  peculiar  to  the  prairies,  or  peculiar 
for  not  prevailing  on  them :  although  it  is  not  at  all  improba- 
ble that  further  experience  and  closer  observation  may  develop 
a  number  of  this  class. 

SAI/T. —  On  the  prairies,  as  elsewhere,  salt  is  justly 
regarded  as  indispensable.  It  is  usually  fed  once  a  week, 
about  40  pounds  to  a  thousand  sheep. 

WEANING  LAMBS. — The  lambs  are  weaned  about  the  first  of 
September,  when  the  prairie  grasses  in  the  North  have  be- 
come too  tough  and  dry  to  put  them  into  proper  condition  for 
winter.  Accordingly  the  best  prairie  shepherds  have  a  fresh 
field  of  domestic  grass  —  generally  blue-grass  —  to  put  their 
lambs  on  at  weaning.  Most  of  them  have  the  corn-field,  which 
is  to  subsist  the  sheep  during  the  winter,  next  to  the  lamb 
pasture,  and  allow  the  lambs  to  run  in  each  at  will.  This  is 
done  not  only  for  the  immediate  benefit  of  the  lambs,  but  to 
accustom  them  to  eat  corn  before  -winter.  Some  sow  the 
corn-field  itself  to  winter  rye,  at  the  last  plowing.  This 
aifords  fall  feed  for  the  lambs,  and  good  spring  feed  for  the 
breeding  ewes.  And  it  is  very  common  to  turn  the  lambs  on 
the  stubbles  to  eat  down  the  sprouts  of  the  scattered  grain. 

Turnips,  of  suitable  kinds,  sown  broadcast  on  the  inverted 
prairie  sward,  would  be  likely  to  do  extremely  well  on  soils 
so  rich  and  deep  and  so  destitute  of  weeds ;  and  they  would 
furnish  cheap  and  admirable  fall  feed  for  sheep  of  all  ages. 

PRAIRIE  MANAGEMENT  IN  WINTER.  —  In  regions  where 
the  pasturage  is  perennial,  as  in  parts  of  Texas,  and  in 
latitudes  much  higher  north  on  our  Pacific  coast,  the  winter 
management  of  sheep  does  not  vary  sufficiently  from  the 
summer  management  to  require  separate  description.  The 
sheep  are  daily  driven  out  on  the  prairie  in  the  same  way, 


PRAIRIE    MANAGEMENT   IN    WINTER.  257 

though  they  are  necessarily  driven  further.  They  generally 
occupy  the  same  folds  or  yards  at  nights  —  with  no  shelter 
whatever,  overhead.  The  utility  of  some  shelter  and  some 
artificial  feed  in  winter,  even  in  such  climates,  has  been 
already  urged. 

For  the  purpose  of  giving  a  clearer  view  of  the  winter 
climate  of  the  Prairie  States,  and  particularly  of  Texas,  I 
shall  devote  some  pages  to  the  subject  in  another  place.  * 

Prairie  management  in  regions  as  far  north  as  Central 
Illinois,  requires  as  much  artificial  preparation  for  winter  as 
is  required  in  New  York  or  Pennsylvania.  Should  those 
preparations  be  the  same  ? 

He  who  embarks  extensively  in  sheep  husbandry  in  the 
older  States  must  buy  a  large  amount  of  comparatively  high 
priced  land,  clear  up  the  forest,  fence  his  land  carefully,  sow 
pastures  and  meadows,  build  barns  for  winter  storage  and  for 
shelter  —  or  buy  all  these  things  already  fitted  to  his  hand  — 
before  he  is  ready  to  purchase  a  flock  of  sheep  to  commence 
his  business.  All  this  requires  the  outlay  of  much  capital. 
The  prairie  sheep  farmer  can  commence  operations  without 
buying  anything  but  his  sheep.  Or,  if  he  does  not  choose  to 
be  a  pure  nomad,  he  can  buy  acres  for  less  than  the  annual 
interest  of  acres  of  the  ordinary  grazing  lands  of  the  old 
States.  His  principal  necessary  capital  is  a  decent  knowledge 
of  his  business,  and  enough  energy  to  persevere  in  it. 

Thus  have  started  a  large  majority  of  the  pioneer  sheep 
farmers  of  the  new  States.  The  new  settler  builds  a  little  log 
house,  for  himself  and  Avife  to  sleep  in  —  a  rail  pen  covered 
with  poles  and  prairie-grass,  for  his  "team"  and  his  cow,  if 
he  is  so  fortunate  as  to  own  such  luxuries  —  a  high  yard 
for  a  fold,  and  then  he  is  ready  to  commence  wool  growing ! 
And  in  ten  years  he  can  count  more  sheep,  and  sometimes 
more  dollars  worth  of  property,  than  his  eastern  competitor, 
who  commenced  with  everything  prepared  to  his  hand.  The 
rail  pen  gives  place  to  the  stable,  and  the  uncovered  fold  yard 
is  succeeded  by  the  fold  yard  and  spacious  sheds.  Fine  fields 
of  domestic  grass  for  spring  and  fall  .feed,  and  of  luxuriant 
corn  for  winter  feed,  surround  the  comfortable  farm  house. 
Noble  flocks  of  thousands  are  driven  up  nightly  by  his  boys 
and  by  the  "  hired  men,"  —  who,  in  five  years  more,  will  be 
flock-masters  themselves! 

Are  such  men  to  be  told  that  they  ought  not  to  commence 

*  See  Appendix  F. 


£58  WINTER   FEEDING    ON   THE    PRAIRIES. 

sheep  husbandry  on  the  prairies  until  they  have  this  or  that 
special  preparation  for  it?  The  sooner  the  prairie  wool 
grower  can  surround  himself  with  all  the  convenient  appli- 
ances for  his  occupation,  the  better:  but  he  acts  entirely 
wisely  in  not  waiting  for  them! 

WINTER  FEED. —  Hay  made  from  the  domestic  grasses  — 
the  "tame  grasses"  as  they  are  called  in  the  West — or  clover, 
is  but  little  known  on  the  prairies.  The  wild  grasses  make 
sufficiently  good  hay,  but  like  the  preceding,  it  probably,  in 
most  situations,  has  a  cheaper  substitute  in  Indian  corn.  The 
remarkable  adaptation  of  most  of  our  prairie  soils  to  this  crop 
is  well  known.  Eighty  bushels  of  it  to  the  acre  would  be 
regarded  as  a  heavy  crop  anywhere  —  but  an  extraordinary 
one  nowhere,  on  the  first-class  virgin  soils.  The  stalks 
properly  cut  and  secured,  yield  nearly  double  the  feed  per 
acre  of  the  small  varieties  cultivated  in  the  grazing  regions 
of  the  Eastern  States.  Its  cultivation,  too,  on  the  mellow, 
weedless,  prairie  soils  can  be  performed  vastly  more  easily 
and  cheaply.  With  two-horse  corn  planters,  and  two-horse 
corn  plows  or  cultivators,  it  is  estimated  'that  one  man  can 
properly  take  care  of  fifty  acres  of  it.  It  should  be  cut  up 
before  the  leaves  are  injured  by  frost,  and  placed  in  shocks, 
where  it  remains  until  it  is  drawn  out  to  be  fed  to  the  sheep. 
It  is  drawn  out  twice  a  day  and  scattered  on  the  ground. 
One  active  man,  with  a  suitable  wagon  and  team,  and  devoting 
his  whole  time  to  it,  can  feed  about  two  thousand  sheep.  A 
firm,  sodded  field  of  domestic  grass  is  very  desirable  to  feed 
on,  instead  of  one  of  wild  grass,  which  soon  becomes  poached 
and  muddy  in  wet  weather.  If  the  field  is  large  enough  to 
change  the  feeding  places  often,  very  little  of  the  corn  is 
wasted.  Some  fanners,  in  place  of  cutting  up  the  corn  and 
drawing  it  out  in  this  way,  leave  it  standing  on  the  hill,  and 
fold  the  sheep  on  it  a  couple  of  hours  twice  a  day ;  but  it  is 
a  wasteful  mode  for  the  frost-bitten  fodder  is  much  less 
valuable. 

The  sheep  are  generally  wintered  in  the  feeding  fields 
without  shelter,  and  even  the  farmers  who  have  sheds  do  not 
put  their  flocks  into  them  except  in  very  stormy  nights,  and 
at  lambing  time.  Those  who  have  a  sufiicicr/i,  number  of 
feeding  fields  divide  tiie  sheep  in  the  beginning  of  winter  into 
three  or  four  lots.  When  this  is  impracticable,  the  lambs  are 
merely  separated  from  the  flock,  and  all  the  rest  run  together. 
This  last  is  very  objectionable  management,  as  it  leaves  the 


SHEDS   OB   STABLES   ON   THE   PEAIKIES.  259 

weaker  and  smaller  to  be  pushed  about  and  driven  from  the 
choicer  portions  of  the  feed  by  the  strong,  heavy  wethers. 
Most  flock-masters  aim,  however,  to  draft  occasionally  from 
the  flock  any  that  become  poor  or  feeble,  and  to  make  some 
separate  arrangement  for  them. 

The  object  of  the  prairie  farmer  is  to  have  his  sheep 
consume  as  much  corn  as  practicable  ;  for  it  is  more  profitable 
to  convert  it  into  animal  products  than  to  sell  it  at  ten  cents 
a  bushel.  *  A  good  sized  grade  Merino  fed  exclusively  on  it 
will  consume  and  waste  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  or 
four  bushels  during  the  winter,  and  the  stalks  on  which  it 
grew.  If  the  corn  is  good,  the  proportion  of  ears  to  stalks  is 
greater  than  it  should  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  sheep.  Some 
farmers  provide  for  this  by  making  enough  "tame  hay"  to 
give  their  sheep  one  feed  a  day ;  some  make  a  quantity  of 
prairie  hay ;  and  others,  instead  of  burning  their  wheat  straw, 
according  to  a  prevalent,  wasteful  method,  thrash  and  stack 
it  in  the  feeding  lot,  so  that  the  sheep  can  get  to  it  at  will,  or 
so  it  can  be  conveniently  fed  to  them  when  necessary.  If  the 
straw  should  be  slightly  brined  when  stacked,  and  the  sheep  be 
fed  salt  in  no  other  way,  it  would  prove  an  acceptable 
fodder  for  them,  and  would  be  sufficiently  nutritious  to  meet 
their  wants  when  accompanied  with  so  much  corn. 

SHEDS  OB  STABLES. —  As  has  been  seen,  these  are  also 
mostly  for  storms  and  for  lambing  time,  because  the  Western 
farmer  feels  that  at  the  high  prices  for  lumber  which  prevail 
in  almost  all  our  prairie  regions,  and  with  the  high  price  and 
actual  scarcity  of  the  labor  necessary  for  housing  winter  feed, 
he  can  not  afford  to  build  regular  sheep  barns  with  room  for 
in-door  feeding  for  his  great  flocks,  or  to  bestow  the  time 
necessary  for  housing  his  feed.  Besides,  his  favorite  corn 
feed  would  not  bear  housing  in  great  masses  without  injury. 
Well  shocked,  it  winters  in  the  field  without  any  serious  loss. 

Accordingly,  the  prairie  sheep  shed  is  but  one  story  high, 
and  generally  not  more  than  seven  or  eight  feet  between  the 
ground  and  the  eaves.  It  is  made  with  a  roof  pitching  both 
ways ;  is  generally,  at  the  best  sheep  establishments,  closed 
up  all  round ;  and  is  long  and  comparatively  narrow,  so  that 
by  a  proper  arrangement  of  fences,  portions  of  it  can  be  made 
accessible  to  different  fields.  The  stable  room  required  by 
sheep  has  already  been  considered. 

*  Or  to  have  it  consumed  for  fuel,  as  has  repeatedly  been  'done,  because  it  made 
the  cheapest  fuel  attainable  in  badly  wooded  regions.  Will  this  fact  be  credited  in 
Europe ! 


260  SHEEP    ESTABLISHMENT    OX   THE    PRAIRIES. 

WATER. —  Snow  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  neither 
very  regular  nor  very  abundant  in  many  of  the  prairie  regions 
—  and,  as  already,  said,  many  of  these  regions  are  very 
deficient  in  running  water.  For  a  sheep  fed  exclusively  on 
dry  feed,  water  is  indispensable ;  and  one  fed  highly  on  dry 
corn  would  undoubtedly  require  it  in  extra  quantities.  On 
very  many  prairies  there  are  frequent  sloughs  which  are  dry 
in  summer,  but  which,  by  deep,  broad  ditches,  can  be  made 
to  supply  abundant  water  in  winter.  It  would  be  worse  than 
folly  to  locate  the  headquarters  of  a  sheep  farm  where  surface 
water  of  no  kind  is  available,  and  where  it  can  not  be 
obtained  abundantly  by  wells ;  and  even  wells  are  a  very  poor 
resort,  when,  by  going  elsewhere  and  further,  a  running 
stream,  or  spring,  or  permanent  surface  water  in  any  other 
form,  can  be  obtained.* 

LOCATION  OF  SHEEP  ESTABLISHMENT. — The  most  desirable 
place  for  locating  a  prairie  sheep  establishment  is  on  the 
banks  of  some  permanent  stream,  where  the  land  is  high, 
rolling,  and  gravelly,  the  grass  abundant  and  of  a  fine  quality, 
small  clumps  of  timber  frequent,  and  a  railroad  to  market 
near  by !  An  undesirable  one  is  a  low,  wet,  level  plain  —  or 
a  dry  one  without  water  or  timber  —  remote  from  all  present 
or  prospective  avenues  to  market. 

NOTE. —  While  these  sheets  are  going  through  the  press, 
as  I  have  mentioned  in  a  preceding  note,  valuable  articles  on 
Prairie  Sheep  Husbandry  by  Hon.  I.  B.  Grinnell,  of  Iowa, 
and  Mr.  S.  P.  Boardman,  of  Illinois,  have  made  their  appear- 
ance in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  — 
and  also  a  very  discriminating  and  able  paper  of  a  more 
general  character,  abounding  in  the  most  valuable  statistics, 
entitled  "  Condition  and  Prospects  of  Sheep  Husbandry  in 
the  United  States."  I  much  regret  that  they  did  not  appear 
in  time  to  allow  me  to  quote  their  confirmatory  testimony  on 
several  subjects  treated  in  this  volume. 

*  Artesian  wells  may  become  available  at  some  future  day  when  the  country  is 
far  more  thickly  settled  and  land  far  higher  priced.  From  ordinary  wells,  water  is 
sometimes  raised  at  no  great  expense  for  stock,  by  means  of  pumps  worked  by  small 
wind  mills. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 
AKATOMY  AND  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP, -THE  HEAD. 

COMPARATIVELY    SMALL     NUMBER     OF    AMERICAN"     SHEEP     DIS- 
EASES   LOW     TYPE      OP     AMERICAN     SHEEP     DISEASES  

ANATOMY    OF    THE     SHEEP THE     SKELETON THE     SKULL 

THE      HORNS     AND      THEIR      DISEASES  THE     TEETH  

SWELLED      HEAD SORE    FACE SWELLED     LIPS INFLAM- 
MATION    OF     THE      EYE. 

COMPARATIVELY  SMALL  NUMBER  OF  AMERICAN  SHEEP 
DISEASES.  —  Many  of  the  diseases  of  sheep  which  are 
described  as  comparatively  common  in  Europe,  are  unknown 
in  the  United  States ;  and  this  remark  applies  particularly  to 
those  which  have  proved  most  destructive  in  the  former. 

I  have  owned  sheep  the  entire  period  of  my  life  —  a  little 
over  half  a  century  —  my  flock  numbering  at  alternating 
periods  from  hundreds  to  thousands.  I  have  for  considerably 
more  than  half  of  this  period  been  constantly  concerned  in 
their  practical  management,  and  a  deeply  interested  observer 
of  them.  For  moi-e  than  twenty  years  I  have  been  engaged 
in  a  constant  and  extensive  correspondence  in  respect  to 
sheep  and  their  diseases,  with  flock-masters  in  various  portions 
of  the  United  States,  and  have  been  in  the  frequent  habit  of 
inspecting  flocks  of  every  size  and  description,  and  I  never 
yet  have  witnessed  or  had  satisfactory  proof  brought  home 
to  me  of  the  existence  of  a  single  case  of  hydatid,  water  on 
the  brain,  palsy,  rot,  small  pox,  malignant  inflammatory  fever, 
(La  Maladie  de  Sologne,}  blain  or  inflammation  of  the 
cellular  tissue  about  the  tongue,  enteritis  or  inflammation  of 
the  coats  of  the  intestines,  acute  dropsy  or  red-water,  acute 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  of  a  whole  host  of  other 
formidable  maladies  described  by  every  European  writer  on 
the  diseases  of  sheep.  I  do  not  aver  that  they  never  occur  in 
the  United  States,  but  the  above  facts  would  seem  to  show 
their  occurrence  must  at  least  be  very  rare,  or  confined  to 
localities  where  they  are  not  recognized. 


262  TYPE    OF    AMEBICAN    SHEEP    DISEASES. 

To  correct  or  confirm  my  own  impressions  on  this 
subject,  I  addressed  letters,  a  few  months  since,  to  a  large 
number  of  highly  intelligent  and  experienced  flock-masters 
residing  in  various  States,  and  in  situations  differing  widely 
in  respect  to  climate,  soil,  elevation,  etc. — asking  them  what 
diseases  sheep  were  subject  to  in  their  respective  regions,  and 
what  remedies  were  most  successfully  employed  for  their  cure. 
The  spirit  and  substance  of  nearly  all  the  replies  are  contained 
in  the  following  extract  from  a  letter  of  my  off-hand  friend, 
Mr.  Theodore  C.  Peters, ' of  Darien,  New  York: 

"  You  ask  me  for  our  sheep  diseases  and  for  the  remedies. 
After  years  of  experience  I  discarded  all  medicines  except 
those  to  cure  hoof-rot  and  scab ;  and  I  finally  cured  those 
diseases  cheapest  by  selling  the  sheep.  An  ounce  of  preven- 
tion is  worth  a  pound  of  cure.  If  sheep  are  well  kept 
summer  and  winter,  not  over-crowded  in  pastures,  and  kept 
under  dry  and  well  ventilated  covers  in  winter,  and  housed 
when  the  cold,  fall  rains  come  on,  there  will  be  no  necessity 
for  remedies  of  any  kind.  If  not  so  handled,  all  the  remedies 
in  the  world  won't  help  them,  and  the  sooner  a  careless, 
shiftless  man  loses  his  sheep  the  better.  They  are  out  of  their 
misery  and  are  not  spreading  contagious  diseases  among  the 
neighboring  flocks." 

When  to  the  two  maladies  above  named,  (hoof-rot  and 
scab,)  are  added  the  obscure  one  described  at  page  204,  a 
very  fatal  but  infrequent  one  in  the  spring,  ordinarily  termed 
grub-in-the-head,  catarrh  or  cold,  colic,  parturient  fever,  (the 
last  quite  rare  and  mostly  confined  to  English  sheep,)  and  the 
few  minor  diseases  of  sheep  and  lambs  mentioned  under  the 
heads  of  Spring,  Summer,  Fall  and  Winter  Management  — 
we  have  almost  the  entire  list  with  which  the  American  sheep 
farmer  is  familiar.  All  the  diseases  named  do  not,  in  my 
opinion,  cut  off  annually  two  per  cent,  of  well  fed  and  really 
well  managed  grown  sheep  !  Nothing  is  more  common  than 
for  years  to  pass  by  in  the  small  flocks  of  our  careful  breeders, 
with  scarcely  a  solitary  instance  of  disease  in  them.  I 
have  not  space  to  offer  any  conjectures  as  to  the  causes  of  an 
immunity  ftpm  disease  so  remarkable,  in  comparison  with  the 
condition  of  England,  France  and  Germany,  in  the  same 
particular. 

Low  TYPE  OF  AMERICAN  SHEEP  DISEASES. —  A  discrimi- 
nating English  veterinary  writer,  Mr.  Spooner,  has  remarked 
that  owing  to  its  greatly  weaker  muscular  and  vascular 


TYPB    OF    AMERICAN    SHEEP    DISEASES.  263 

structure,  the  diseases  of  the  sheep  are  much  less  likely  to 
take  an  inflammatory  type  than  those  of  the  horse,  (and  he 
might  have  added  the  ox,)  and  that  the  character  of  its 
maladies  is  generally  that  of  debility.  *  Mr.  Spooner  wrote 
with  his  eye  on  the  mutton  sheep  of  England  —  constantly 
forced  forward  by  the  most  nutritious  food,  in  order  to  attain 
early  maturity  and  excessive  fatness.  Still  more  strongly, 
then,  do  his  remarks  apply  to  the  ordinarily  fed  wool- 
producing  sheep  of  the  United  States.  I  long  ago  remarked 
that  the  depletory  treatment,  by  bleeding  and  cathartics, 
resorted  to  in  so  many  of  the  diseases  of  sheep  in  England,  is 
inapplicable  and  dangerous  here.  The  American  Sheep, 
which  has  been  kept  in  the  common  way,  sinks  from  the 
outset,  or  after  a  mere  transient  flash  of  inflammatory  action ; 
and  in  any  stage  of  its  maladies,  active  depletion  is  likely  to 
lead  to  fatal  prostration. 

It  is  not  purposed  here  to  enter  upon  any  explanation  of 
the  anatomy  of  the  sheep,  further  than  is  necessary  to  give 
a  general  view  of  the  principal  internal  structures  which 
determine  the  form,  discharge  some  of  the  principal  animal 
functions,  and  become  the  seats  or  subjects  of  disease.  And 
in  treating  of  maladies,  I  shall  aim  to  adapt  both  the  language 
and  the  prescriptions  to  the  degree  of  knowledge  already 
possessed  on  the  subject  by  ordinary  practical  men,  instead 
of  learned  veterinarians. 

On  the  next  page  is  given  an  illustration  and  description 
of  the  skeleton  of  a  sheep,  and  on  the  following  page  the 
skull  of  a  hornless  sheep  is  represented  and  described. 

*  Spooner  on  Sheep,  pp.  269,  271. 


264 


STRUCTURE    OP  THE   SHEEP. 


SKELETON    OF    THE    SHEEP. 


The  Head. 

1.  The  inter-maxillary-bone. 

2.  The  nasal  bones. 

3.  The  upper  jaw. 

4.  The  union  of  the  nasal  and  upper  jaw 

bones. 

5.  The  union  of  the  malar  and  lachrymal 

bones. 

0.  The  orbits  of  the  eye. 
7.  The  frontal  bone. 

9.  The  lower  jaw. 

10.  The  incisor  teeth,  or  nippers. 

11.  The  molars,  or  grinders. 

The  Trunk, 

1.  1.  The  ligament  of  the  neck,  support- 

ing the  head. 
1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  The  seven  vertebra;,  or 

bones  of  the  neck. 
1 — 13.  The  thirteen  vertebrae,  or  bones 

qf  the  back. 
1— fi.  The  six  vertebra?  of  the  loins. 

7.  The  sacral  bone. 

8.  The  bones  of  the  tail,  varying  in  dif- 

ferent breeds  from  12  to  21. 

9.  The  haunch  and  pelvis. 

1 — 8.  The  eight  true  ribs  with  their  car- 
tilages. 

9—13.  The  five  false  ribs,  or  those  that 
are  not  attached  to  the  breast-bone. 
14.  The  breast-bone. 


The  Fore -Leg. 

1.  The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade. 

2.  The  humerus,  bone  of  the  arm,  or  low- 

er part  of  the  shoulder. 

3.  The  radius,  or  bone  of  the  fore-arm. 

4.  The  ulna,  or  elbow. 

5.  The  knee,  with  its  different  bones. 

6.  The  metacarpal,  or  shank-bones  —  the 

larger  bones  of  the  leg. 

7.  A  rudiment  of  the  smaller  metacarpal. 

8.  One  of  the  sessamoid  bones. 

9.  The  two  first  bones  of  the  foot  — the 

pasterns. 
10.  The  proper  bones  of  the  foot. 

The  Hind-Leg. 

1.  The  thigh-bone. 

2.  The    stifle-joint   and  its  bone— the 

patella. 

3.  The  tibia,  or  bone  of  the  upper  part  of 

the  leg. 

4.  The  point  of  the  hock. 

5.  The  other  bones  of  the  hock. 

6.  The  metatarsal  bone,  or  bone  of  the 

hind-leg. 

7.  Rudiment  of  the  small  metatarsal. 

8.  A  sessamoid  bone. 

9.  The  two  first  bones  of  the  foot  — the 

pasterns. 
10.  The  proper  bone  of  the  foot. 


THE    HORNS    AND   THEIR    DISEASES. 


265 


SKULL  OF  A  HORNLESS  SHEEP. 

1.  The  Occipital  bone. 

2.  The  parietal  bones,  the  suture  having  disappeared. 

3.  The  squamous  portions  of  the  temporal  bone. 

4.  The  meatus  auditorius,  or  bony  opening  into  the  ear. 

5.  The  frontal  bones. 

0.  The  openings  through  which  blood-vessels  pass  to  supply 
the  forehead. 

7.  The  bony  orbits  of  the  eye. 

8.  The  zygomatic  or  molar  bones. 

9.  The  lachrymal  bones. 

10.  The  bones  of  the  nose. 

11.  The  upper  jaw  bone. 

12.  The  foramen,  through  which  the  nerve  and  blood-vessela 

pass  to  supply  the  lower  part  of  the  face. 

13.  The  nasal  processes  of  the  intermaxillary  bones. 

14.  The  pelatine  processes. 

15.  The  intermaxillary  bone,  supporting  the  cartilaginous  pad, 

instead  of  containing  teeth. 

THE  HORNS  AND  THEIR  DISEASES. — Whether  sheep 
should  be  bred  to  have  horns  or  not  depends  upon  the  taste 
of  the  owner.  In  the  abstract,  they  are,  undoubtedly,  a 
wholly  useless  appendage,  render  the  lamb  more  difficult  of 
parturition,  and  in  their  massive  proportions  on  the  head  of 
the  male  Merino,  cause  him  to  be,  however  quiet  his  temper,  a 
dangerous  associate  to  breeding  ewes  in  advanced  stages  of 
pregnancy.  Yet  I  know  no  leading  Merino  breeder  who 
would  use  a  polled  or  hornless  ram,  any  sooner  than  would  a 
Down  or  Leicester  breeder  use  a  ram  having  horns !  Each 
clings  to  the  characteristics  of  his  breed.  Most  Merino 
breeders,  however,  object  to  horns  on  ewes  —  though  very 
small  ones,  having  but  one  convolution,  are  not  uncommon. 
I  have  never  seen  it  remarked  that  the  different  families  of 
Merinos  in  Spain  exhibited  any  different  characteristics  in 
their  horns  —  but  the  American  Infantados  and  Paulars,  as 
now  modified,  generally  do  so.  In  the  former,  the  convolu- 
tions are  nearer  together,  and  the  first  one  frequently  passes 
down  very  close  to  the  head  and  neck  —  in  a  few  instances 
presses  so  closely  on  them  that,  in  the  case  of  valuable  ram 
lambs,  the  horns  are  artificially  spread  apai't  by  means  of  an 
iron  brace  placed  between  them  (over  the  back  side  of  the 
head)  which  can  be  lengthened  by  a  screw  as  the  horns  give 
way  to  the  pressure.  In  the  Paular,  the  horns  are  usually 
quite  divergent,  and  frequently  of  great  size.  * 

*  The  fact  that  the  Silesians,  which  are  deep  in  Infantado  blood,  have  also  the 
close  or  convergent  horn,  would  go  to  show  that  it  is  a  family  peculiarity.  I  owned  a 
Paular  ram  two  or  three  years  since,  which  at  two  years  old,  measured  three  feet 
between  the  tips  of  his  horns.  He  died  before  he  was  three  years  old  ;  and  a  person 
sawed  off  his  horns  so  as  to  take  that  portion  of  the  skull  covered  by  the  base  of  each. 
He  subsequently  boiled  them  to  detach  them  from  the  bones.  They  have  lain  dry  two 
years.  Weighed  to-day,  with  the  inside  bones,  they  weigh  6  Ibs. ! 
12 


266 


TEETH    OF   THE    SHEEP. 


The  proper  mode  of  managing  horns  at  shearing,  was 
mentioned  at  page  189.  I  am  not  aware  that  they  are  subject 
to  any  diseases  except  those  caused  by  fracture.  They  are 
sometimes  broken  in  fighting ;  and  I  have  seen  an  old*  ram 
which  had  one  knocked  clean  from  his  head  by  the  charge  of 
a  ram  from  behind,  while  another  occupied  his  attention  in 
front.  The  bleeding  is  very  considerable  in  such  cases,  but  a 
tarred  rag  securely  bound  over  the  part  to  keep  away  flies 
and  irritating  substances  is  all  that  is  necessary. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 
TEETH    OF    THE    SHEEP. 


Fig.  6. 


THE  TEETH. —  The  sheep  has  thirty-two  teeth  —  eight 
incisors  in  front  of  lower  jaw,  and  six  molars  on  each  side  in 
the  upper  and  lower  jaw.  The  lamb  at  birth  has  two  incisor 
teeth  visible,  or  pressing  through  the  gums.  Usually  before 
it  is  a  month  old  it  has  eight  comparatively  short,  narroAv 
ones,  as  in  Fig.  1.  At  about  a  year  old,  though  sometimes 
not  until  the  fourteenth  or  sixteenth  month,  the  two  central 
"lamb  teeth"  are  shed  and  replaced  by  two  "broad  teeth," 
which  gradually  attain  their  full  size.  The  sheep  is  then 
termed  a  yearling,  or  "yearling  past."  Two  lamb  teeth 
continue  to  be  shed  annually  and  replaced  by  broad  teeth, 
until  the  sheep  has  eight  incisors  of  second  growth,  when  it  is 
termed  "full  mouthed."  Fig.  2  represents  "the  mouth"  of  a 
yearling  past ;  Fig.  3  of  a  two-year-old  past ;  Fig.  4  of  a  three- 
year-old  past,  and  Fig.  6  of  a  four-year-old  past.*  Fig.  5  is  a 
back  or  inside  view  of  the  teeth  of  a  three-year-old,  showing 
the  narrow  and  dwindled  appearance  of  the  two  last  lamb 


*  The  English,  counting  from  the  periods  when  each  new  pair  of  incisors  become 
fully  developed,  usually  speak  of  two  broad  teeth  as  indicating  a  two-year-old,  four  a 
three-year-old,  six  a  four-year-old,  and  eight  a  five-year-old. 


TEETH    OF   THE    SHEEP.  267 

teeth,  before  they  are  shed ;  and  they  frequently,  as  in  this 
cut,  stand  so  far  behind  the  third  pair  of  incisors  that  they 
can  not  be  seen,  on  looking  into  the  mouth  in  front.  Conse- 
quently, unless  the  broad  incisors  are  counted^  the  sheep  is 
often  mistaken  for  a  full-mouthed  one. 

The  teeth  afford  the  most  decisive  test  there  is  of  the  age  of 
a  sheep,  until  it  is  four  years  old,  though  there  is  sometimes 
a  variation  of  a  number  of  months  or  even  a  year  in  their 
development.  High  kept  and  rapidly  grown  sheep  acquire 
their  second  teeth  earlier. 

When  perfect,  the  incisors  are  sharp,  rounded  on  the  edge, 
as  in  the  cuts ;  a  little  concave  without  and  convex  within  (or 

foug£-shaped ;)  and  they  project  forward,  so  that  with  the 
rm,  elastic,  pad  on  the  upper  jaw  with  which  they  are 
brought  into  contact,  they  are  capable  of  taking  up  the 
smallest  body.  They  will  not  only  crop  the  shortest  grass, 
but  scoop  up  its  very  roots.  A  sheep  yarded  on  unpulled 
turnips  usually  scoops  out  the  centers  of  them  so  far  as  they 
are  in  the  ground,  leaving  little  more  than  the  mere  skin  of 
the  sides  and  bottoms,  remaining  unbroken  like  cups  in 
the  soil. 

At  six  years  old  the  incisors  of  the  Merino  begin  to 
diminish  in  breadth  and  lose  their  fan-like  shape  and  position. 
At  seven  they  become  long  and  narrow,  stand  about  perpen- 
dicular with  respect  to  each  other,  and  have  lost  their 
rounded,  cutting  edges.  At  eight  they  are  still  narrower, 
and  their  outer  ends  begin  to  converge  considerably  toward 
the  middle.  At  nine  the  convergence  is  still  greater,  the  teeth 
are  not  thicker  than  very  small  straws,  and  are  very  long, 
particularly  the  middle  ones.  At  ten  these  appearances  have 
increased  and  the  teeth  are  becoming  quite  loose.  At  about 
this  period  of  life  the  teeth  begin  to  drop  out,  though 
frequently  all  are  retained  until  twelve.*  The  sheep  is  then 
called  "broken  mouthed."  In  two  or  three  years  after 
beginning  to  lose  them,  all  the  incisors  are  usually  gone  but 
one  or  two.  These  should  be  pulled  by  a  pair  of  nippers,  as 
they  prevent  the  sheep  from  cropping  short  grass,  f  The 

*  It  is  stated  by  Dillon,  in  his  Travels  in  Spain,  1779,  (quoted  by  Touatt,)  that 
lithe  teeth  of  the  Spanish  ram  do  not  fall  out  until  the  animal  is  eight  years 
old  ;  whereas  the  ewes,  from  the  delicacy  of  their  frame,  or  from  other  causes, 
lose  theirs  at  five."  These  are  undoubtedly  the  loose  assertions  of  a  misinformed 
traveler:  at  least,  they  do  not  approximate  to  accuracy  in  respect  to  the  American 
Merino. 

t  Mr.  Yonatt  is  clearly  mistaken,  however,  an  saying  "  that  if  any  of  the  teeth 
are  loose  they  should  be  extracted,"  (vide  p.  5.)  All  the  incisors  are  frequently 
loose,  to  a  considerable  degree,  a  year  or  two  before  any  of  them  drop  out,  and  the 


268  SWELLED   HEAD. 

gum  of  the  lower  jaw  hardens  after  their  removal,  so  that  it 
becomes,  in  a  measure,  a  substitute  for  the  lost  incisors,  in 
separating  their  food.  The  molars,  though  shortened  and 
worn,  are  never  shed,  so  that  mastication  continues  complete. 
Old  breeding  ewes  often  live,  thrive,  and  raise  good  lambs 
three  or  four  years  after  ceasing  to  have  any  front  teeth. 

English  sheep  become  broken-mouthed  from  three  to  four 
years  earlier  —  the  difference  about  corresponding  with  the 
difference  in  the  longevity  of  the  races.  Sheep  of  all  kinds 
differ  not  only  as  between  individuals,  but  between  flocks  in  the 
period  of  losing  their  teeth.  If  fed  uncut  and  dirty  roots, 
they  lose  them  much  earlier.  The  prying  action  of  the 
incisors,  as  they  are  employed  in  scooping  out  a  turnip,  for 
example  —  particularly  if  it  be  partly  frozen  —  or  the 
obstruction  of  a  bit  of  gravel  (which  often  finds  its  way  from 
the  tap  roots  even  among  cut  turnips)  between  an  incisor 
and  the  pad  above  it,  not  unfrequently  causes  a  loose  one  to 
be  detached,  or  a  comparatively  firm  one  to  snap  off. 

SWELLED  HEAD. —  The  head  of  the  sheep  sometimes 
becomes  swollen  from  causes  which  are  not  very  well  under- 
stood. I  do  not  know  of  any  special  or  characteristic  disease 
among  sheep  which  produces  this  effect.*  It  is  occasionally 
heard  of  in  this  country  —  but  I  have  never  seen  it,  or  heard 
its  symptoms  accurately  described.  According  to  Mr.  Hogg, 
it  appears  in  Scotland.  An  abscess  is  formed  and  breaks,  and 
the  sheep  then  speedily  recovers  unless  too  much  reduced  by 
the  discharge.  In  England  it  is  sometimes  occasioned,  Mr. 
Youatt  thinks,  from  the  sting  of  a  venomous  reptile  or  insect, 
in  which  case,  he  says,  the  wool  should  be  cut  off  round  the 
wound,  the  parts  washed  with  warm  water,  olive  oil  well 
rubbed  in,  and  small  doses  of  hartshorn- diluted  with  water, 
administered  internally — "half  a  scruple  of  the  hartshorn  in 
an  ounce  of  water  every  hour." 

Mr.  Youatt  conjectures  that  the  Scotch  form  of  the  disease 
may  arise  from  eating  poisonous  plants,  or  from  a  species 
of  catarrh  or  influenza,  f  To  these  causes,  and  to  the  last 
especially,  I  have  been  disposed  to  attribute  such  instances  of 

sheep  remains  capable  not  only  of  cropping  grass,  but  of  scooping  out  a  turnip  in  the 
manner  already  mentioned.  Nor  should  all  be  pulled  when  only  one  or  two  drop  out. 
The  judgment  of  the  shepherd  must  be  his  guide  in  the  matter ;  but  as  long  as,  say 
five  incisors  remain  together  or  press  together,  it  is  not  usually  best  to  remove  them. 

*  I  should  except  blain,  but  this  disease  has  not  appeared  in  the  United  States. 

t  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  371. 


SOKE    FACE.  269 

the  disease  as  I  have  heard  of  in  the  United  States.     In  this 
case,  it  should  be  treated  like   catarrh,  (which  see.) 

SORE  FACE. —  The  faces  of  sheep  sometimes  become  so 
sore,  in  the  summer,  that  the  hair  comes  off.  This  is  usually 
attributed  either  to  coining  in  contact  with,  or  eating  St. 
Jolm's-Wort,  (Hypericum  perforatum.)  *  Mr.  Morrell  states, 
in  the  American  Shepherd,  that  the  "  irritation  of  the  skin  " 
will  sometimes  extend  "  over  the  whole  body  and  legs  of  the 
sheep ;"  that  "if  eaten  in  too  large  quantities  it  produces  violent 
inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and  is  frequently  fatal  to  lambs, 
and  sometimes  to  adults ;"  that  "  its  effects,  when  inflamma- 
tion is  produced  internally,  are  very  singular ;"  that  he  "  has 
witnessed  the  most  fantastic  capers  of  sheep  in  this  situation, 
and  once  a  lamb,  while  running,  described  a  circle  with  all 
the  precision  of  a  circus  horse,"  and  that  "this  was  continued 
until  it  fell  from  exhaustion."  He  recommends,  if  there  are 
symptoms  of  internal  inflammation,  that  tar  be  administered, 
but  says  that  "simply  hog's  lard  is  used  frequently  with 
success."  He  recommends  that  the  sheep  should  be  removed 
to  pastures  free  of  the  weed  and  salted  freely ;  and  remarks 
that  "it  is  said  that  salt,  if  given  often  to  sheep,  is  an  effectual 
guard  against  the  poisonous  properties  of  the  weed." 

Mr.  Morrell  does  not  state  how  he  traced  these  extensive, 
and  especially  these  internal  effects,  to  the  consumption  of  St. 
John's -Wort.  On  consulting  several  works  on  Botany, 
and  Dunglison's  Medical  Dictionary,  lying  before  me,  I  do  not, 
with  the  exception  below,  find  it  mentioned  as  a  poisonous  or 
noxious  plant  in  any  of  them.  Dr.  Dunglison  characterizes  it 
as  an  aromatic  and  astringent,  and  states  that  an  infusion  of 
its  flowers  in  olive  oil  is  a  vulnerary  —  or,  is  useful  in 
curing  wounds. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Dr.  John  Torry's  "Flora  of  the 
State  of  New  York,"  (in  the  "Natural  History  of  New 
York,")  occurs  the  following  remarks  on  the  properties  of 
this  plant :  —  "  This  pernicious  weed  is  generally  believed,  in 
this  country,  to  be  the  most  common  cause  of  '  slabbers 'f  in 
horses  and  horned  cattle ;  and  likewise  to  cause  sores  on 
their  skin,  especially  on  animals  whose  noses  and  feet  are 
white,  and  whose  skin  is  thin  and  tender.  Dr.  Darlington 
remarks  that  the  dew  which  collects  on  the  plant  appears  to 

*  I  gave  this  as  the  cause  in  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,  p.  271,  but  I  did  not 
suppose  it  was  eaten  by  sheep. 

t  I  had  supposed  that  honor  was  more  particularly  assigned  to  lobelia  (L.  inflata.) 


270  EFFECT    OF    ST.    JOHN's-WOBT. 

become  acrid.  He  has  seen  the  backs  of  white  cows  covered 
with  sores  wherever  the  bushy  extremity  of  their  tails  has 
been  applied,  after  draggling  through  the  St.  John's -Wort. 
Dr.  J.  M.  Bigelow,  of  Ohio,  states  that  he  has  known  a  high 
degree  of  inflammation  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  mouth 
and  fauces  produced  by  eating  a  few  of  the  fresh  leaves.  It 
was  formerly  in  considerable  repute  for  its  medicinal  virtues, 
but  was  chiefly  employed  as  a  balsamic  for  wounds."  * 

What  should  induce  sheep  to  eat  a  noxious  plant  which 
they  are  familiar  with,  and  which  is  excessively  acrid  to  the 
taste,  it  is  difficult  to  conjecture.  I  doubt  whether  they  do 
so.  Indeed,  I  doubt  whether  it  so  often  affects  sheep  in  any 
way  as  I  formerly  believed,  and  as  many  persons  continue  to 
believe.  It  grows  in  most  of  my  hill  pastures ;  and  having 
ceased  to  fear  it  and  consequently  to  make  special  efforts  for 
its  extirpation,  it  being  a  hardy  perennial-rooted  plant,  has 
increased  so  that  it  is  readily  found.  Within  a  week  of  this 
writing  f  I  have  observed  abundant  plants  of  it  in  a  field 
where  I  have  kept  one  hundred  and  eighty  ewes  and  lambs 
since  they  were  first  turned  out  in  the  spring,  and  not  one  of 
them  has  been  in  the  least  degree  affected  by  it.  I  never  saw 
a  case  where  the  sheep  were  affected  beyond  a  soreness  of  the 
face :  and  I  do  not  think  I  have  seen  even  such  a  case  within 
fifteen  years.  All  my  recollections  of  it  go  back  to  the  days 
of  the  feeble  little  Saxon  sheep,  which  were  always  peeling 
on  some  excuse  or  other ! 

I  have  some  Short-Horn  cows,  too,  with  white  noses,  white 
spots  on  their  backs,  and  long  tails  to  draggle  -over  the  St. 
John's -Wort  in  their  pasture,  both  when  wet  and  dry;  and 
none  of  them  are  affected  by  it.  While  I  am  not  prepared  to 
deny  that  it  sometimes  causes  sores  both  on  cattle  and 
sheep,  I  am  not  disposed  to  concede  much  to  mere  popular 
belief  on  the  subject  without  better  proof  than  I  have  yet 
seen  adduced.  \  Popular  belief  in  France  and  Germany,  says 
London,  cause  the  people  "to  gather  it  with  great  ceremony 
on  St.  John's  Day,  and  hang  it  in  their  windows,  as  a  charm 
against  storms,  thunder  and  evil  spirits  —  mistaking  the 
meaning  of  some  medical  writers  who  have  fancifully  given 
this  plant  the  name  of  Fuga  Dcemomtm^  from  a  supposition 

*  Flora  of  New  York,  Vol.  1,  p.  87. 
t  August,  1863. 

t  I  intended  to  make  some  experiments  in  regard  to  its  effects,  preparatory  to 
writing  this  article,  but  have  not  had  time  to  attend  to  it. 
§  Flight  of  evil  spirits  or  demons. 


SWELLED    LIPS.  271 

that  it  was  good  in  maniacal  and  hypochondriacal  disorders. 
In  Scotland  it  was  formerly  carried  about  as  a  charm  against 
witchcraft  and  enchantment !  " 

From  whatever  cause  it  arises,  the  sore  face  ascribed  to 
the  effects  of  St.  John's-Wort  is  readily  cured  by  sulphur 
ointment,  composed  of  sulphur  and  hog's  lard.  If,  as  Mr. 
Morrell  supposes,  it  produces  "violent  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,"  I  should  not  like  to  trust  either  to  tar  or  lard, 
but  would  resort  to  the  treatment  appropriate  in  the  case 
of  vegetable  poisons.  (See  Poisons.) 

SWELLED  LIPS. —  Sheep  are  sometimes  quite  suddenly 
affected  with  sore  lips  in  the  winter — and  I  think  this  oftenest 
occurs  to  the  lambs  of  the  preceding  spring.  The  lips 
become  swollen  to  several  times  their  natural  thickness,  are 
hard,  crack  open,  and  are  so  stiff  and  sore  that  the  animal 
eats  with  difficulty.  This  disease  visited  a  flock  owned  by 
me  five  or  six  years  since,  and  included  nearly  the  entire 
number.  It  promptly  disappeared  on  smearing  their  lips  with 
tar  rendered  thin  and  soft  by  butter  and  slightly  mixed  with 
sulphur.  A  neighbor's  sheep  which  were  thus  attacked,  were 
simply,  on  my  suggestion,  smeared  over  the  lips  with  pot- 
grease  ;  and  it  likewise  immediately  relieved  them.  There 
appeared  to  be  no  observable  constitutional  disease  in  either 
case.  Several  other  such  attacks  and  cures  have  occurred 
within  flocks  which  I  am  familiar  with. 

The  causes  of  this  affection  are  unknown.  Some  attribute 
it  to  St.  John's-Wort,  or  other  noxious  weeds  in  the  hay  — 
but,  in  my  own  case,  it  can  not  possibly  be  explained  in  this 
way.  A  tun  of  the  hay  would  have  scarcely  contained  a 
handful  of  St.  John's-Wort,  and  it  contained  no  other  weed 
even  suspected  of  being  noxious  —  while  the  malady  was 
simultaneously  exhibited  by  nearly  every  animal  in  the  same 
flock.  The  hay,  however,  came  from  a  new  field,  and 
contained  an  excessive  quantity  of  bull-thistles.  Whether 
the  dry  prickles  of  these  had  anything  to  do  in  producing  the 
effect  on  the  lips,  I  am  unable  to  say.  I  have  occasionally 
seen  it  stated  in  Agricultural  papers  that  a  disease  of  which 
swelled  lips  are  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  characteristic 
symptoms,  has  resulted  mortally.  I  think  it  must  be  a 
different  malady  from  the  one  under  consideration.  I  have 
never  witnessed  any  instance  of  swelled  lips  which  I  think 
would  have  been  likely  to  produce  death  without  the  applica- 
tion of  any  remedy. 


272  DISEASES    OF   THE    EYE. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  EYE. — The  eyes  of  sheep  are  subject 
to  few  diseases,  in  our  country.  The  only  serious  one  I  have 
ever  seen  —  and  that  is  quite  rare1 — is  simple  ophthalmia,* 
characterized  by  redness,  of  the  eye,  and  its  appendages, 
with  intolerance  of  light  and  a  copious  flow  of  tears.  It  is 
generally,  however,  attended  with  but  moderate  inflam- 
mation, and  if  neglected,  its  worst  and  that  by  no  means  the 
most  common  result  is  blindness,  almost  invariably  confined 
to  one  eye.  It  might  prove  more  serious  among  high  fed 
mutton  sheep.  Mr.  Grove,  the  best  practical  shepherd  of  his 
day,  in  our  country,  used  to  blow  red  chalk  into  the  diseased 
eye.  "  Others  squirt  into  it  tobacco  juice,  from  those  ever 
ready  reservoirs  of  this  nauseous  fluid,  their  mouths.  Conceiv- 
ing it  a  matter  of  humanity  to  do  something,  I  have  in  some 
instances  drawn  blood  from  under  the  eye,  bathed  the  eye  in 
warm  water,  and  occasionally  with  a  weak  solution  of  the 
sulphate  of  zinc  combined  with  tincture  of  opium.  These 
applications  diminish  the  pain  and  accelerate  the  cure."  f 

*  There  is  occasionally  a  case  of  cataract.    Also  see  Art.  Rabies  in  this  volume, 
t  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,  p.  239. 


CHAPTER 


ANATOMY  AND 


DISEASES  OF    THE 
CONTINUED, 


SHEEP'S  HEAD, 


SECTION  OF  SHEEP'S  HEAD  —  GRUB  IN  THE  HEAD  —  HTDATID 
OK  THE  BRAIN  -  WATER  ON  THE  BRAIN  -  APOPLEXY  - 
INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BKAIN  -  TETANUS  OE  LOCKED  JAW 
-  EPILEPSY  -  PALSY  -  RABIES. 


SECTION    OF    SHEEP  S    HEAD. 


1.  The  nasal  bone. 

2.  The  upper  jaw  bone. 

3.  The  intermaxillary  bone,  the  fore  part 

of  which  supports  the  pad,  against 
which  the  incisor  teeth  shut. 

4.  4.  The  frontal  sinuses,  or  cavities. 

5.  The  sinus  of  the  horn,  communicating 

with  frontal  sinus,  disclosed  byre- 
moving  a  section  of  the  base  and 
bone  of  the  horn. 

6.  The  parietal  bone. 

7.  The  frontal  bone. 

8.  A  vertical  section  of  the  brain. 


9.  A  vertical  section  of  the  cerebellum. 

a.  The  cineritious  portion  of  the  brain. 

b.  The  medullary  portion  of  the  brain. 

10.  The  ethmoid  bone,  with  its  cells. 

11.  The  cribriform  or  perforated  plate  of 

the  ethmoid  bone,  pierced  with 
numerous  holes  for  the  passage  of 
the  olfactory  nerve. 

12.  The  development  of  the  lower  cell  of 

ethmoid  bone. 

13.  The  superior  turbinated  bone. 

14.  The  inferior  turbinated  bone. 
17.  The  sphenoid  bone. 


GRUB  IN  THE  HEAD. —  In  the  months  of  July  and  August 
sheep  are  often  seen  gathered  in  dense  clumps  with  their 
heads  turned  inward  and  their  noses  held  down  to  the 
ground.  If  driven  away,  they  run  without  raising  their 
heads,  or  rapidly  thrust  them  down  again,  as  if  they  had 
some  very  urgent  motive  for  retaining  them  in  that  position. 
12* 


274  THE    GAD-FLY   AND    ITS   LARVA. 

Occasionally  they  stamp  or  strike  violently  with  their  fore- 
feet near  their  noses  as  if  an  enemy,  invisible  to  the  spectator, 
were  assailing  them  at  that  point.  It  is  the 
CEstrus  ovis,  or  gad-fly  of  the  sheep,  attempting 
to  deposite  its  eggs  within  their  nostrils.  "The 
head  and  corslet"  of  this  insect,  says  Mr. 
Youatt,  "taken  together,  are  as  long  as  the 
body;  and  that  is  composed  of  five  rings,  tiger- 
colored  on  the  back,  with  some  small  points,  and  SHEEP  G 
larger  patches  of  deep,  brown  color.  The  belly  is  of  nearly 
the  same  color,  but  has  only  one  large  circular  spot  on  the 
center  of  each  of  the  rings.  The  length  of  the  wings  is 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  body,  which  they  almost  entirely 
cover.  They  are  prettily  striped  and  marked."  * 

If  the  fly  succeeds  in  depositing  its  eggs  within  the 
nostrils  of  a  sheep,  they  are  immediately  hatched  by  the 
warmth  and  moisture,  and  the  larvae  or  young  grubs,  crawl 
up  the  nose  finding  their  way  to  the  sinuses,  where,  by  means 
of  the  tentacula  or  hooks  which  grow  from  the  sides  of  their 
mouths,  they  attach  themselves  to  the  membrane  lining  those 
cavities,  and  there  remain  feeding  on  its  mucus  until  the 
following  year.  As  the  minute  worm  ascends  the  nose,  the 
sheep  appears  to  be  distracted  with  apprehension.  It  dashes 
wildly  about  the  field,  stamping,  snorting  and  tossing  its  head. 
Fig.  1  in  the  annexed  cut,  exhibits  the  larva  or  grub  about 
half  grown.  It  is  then  white,  except  two  brown  spots  near 
the  tail.  Fig.  2  represents  it  of  full  size.  The  rings,  and 
particularly  those  nearest  the  tail,  are  now  dark  brown. 


THE    "GRUB"    OR   LARVA    OF   THE    GAD-FLT. 


Each  ring  has  darker  spots,  and  below  them  are  others,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3  exhibits  a  full  grown  larva  on  its  back 
• —  the  minute  dots  between  the  belly  rings  representing  small 
red  spines,  the  points  of  which  turn  backwards. 

The  larva,  after   remaining   in    the   sinuses  through  the 

*  Those  who  wish  a  further  description  of  this  insect,  will  find  more  on  the 
subject  in  Mr.  Youatt' s  work  on  sheep,— and  especially  in  Mr.  Bracy  Clark's  mon- 
ograph of  the  oeatrua  ovis. 


"GKUB  IN  THE  HEAD."  275 

winter  and  early  part  of  the  ensuing  spring,  abandons  them 
as  the  warm  weather  advances.  It  crawls  down  the  nose, 
again  producing  great  irritation  and  excitement ;  drops  on 
the  ground ;  rapidly  burrows  into  it ;  assumes  the  form  of  a 
chrysalis ;  and  finally  again  hatches  forth  a  perfect  fly. 

Many  French  and  English  writers  consider  these  larvae, 
while  in  the  heads  of  sheep,  the  causes  of  most  serious  evils 
and  of  frequent  death.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Bracy  Clark 
and  Mr.  Youatt  are  not  only  disposed  to  doubt  this,  but  they 
even  suggest  that  these  parasites  may  be  placed  where  they 
are  for  the  benefit  of  the  sheep,  particularly  those  in  high 
condition  —  to  save  them  from  determination  of  blood  to  the 
head  by  establishing  counter  irritation ! 

This  is  as  far-fetched  as  a  conclusion,  as  is  the  reasoning 
on  which  it  is  founded.  Mr.  Youatt  declares  : — u  It  is  incom- 
patible with  that  wisdom  and  goodness  that  are  more  and 
more  evident  in  proportion  as  the  phenomena  of  nature  are 
closely  examined,  that  the  destined  residence  of  the  oastrus 
ovis  should  be  productive  of  continued  inconvenience  or 
disease."  *  Had  Mr.  Youatt  forgotten  that  the  "  destined 
residence"  of  the  scab  acarus,  of  the  tick,  of  the  common 
maggot,  etc.,  are  all  productive  of  inconvenience,  disease  and 
death  to  the  sheep? 

If  a  sheep  dies  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  fat  or  poor, 
suddenly  or  lingeringly,  with  one  or  another  set  of  symptoms, 
the  popular  belief  generally  traces  the  malady  to  "grub  in  the 
head."  It  is  the  convenient  name  which  covers  all  the 
unknown  fatal  maladies  of  that  season  of  the  year.  This 
probably  arises  from  the  fact  that  on  making  what  may  be 
termed  the  farmer's  autopsy — viz.,  on  splitting  open  the  body 
and  head  of  the  dead  sheep  with  an  axe  —  the  most  striking 
deviation,  if  not  the  only  one,  from  what  is  supposed  to  be 
the  natural  situation  of  things,  which  is  discovered  in  the  five 
minutes  scrutiny,  is  a  quantity  of  large,  fat,  ill-looking  worms 
in  the  cavities  of  the  head :  and  our  rapid  practitioner  at  once 
decides  that  these  are  cause  enough  for  any  disease !  His 
theory  is  that  the  "  grub "  bores  through  the  walls  which 
separate  the  nasal  cavities  or  the  sinuses  from  the  brain,  and 
that  they  produce  death  by  attacking  the  latter  organ.  I 
have  been  triumphantly  shown  the  cribriform  plate  of  the 
ethmoid  bone  (see  11,  in  Fig.  on  page  273,)  with  its  natiiral 
perforations  for  the  passage  of  the  olfactory  nerve,  in  proof 

*  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  368. 


276  "GKUB  IN  THE  HEAD." 

that  the  "grubs"  had  already  "got  small  holes  opened  to  the 
brain,"  when  their  further  operations  were,  it  was  supposed, 
suspended  by  the  death  of  the  subject ! 

I  have  had  a  singularly  limited  experience  with  any 
diseases  which  could  reasonably  be  attributed  to  the  presence 
of  these  parasites,  and  therefore  do  not  feel  myself  at  all  well 
qualified  to  judge  of  their  actual  effects  on  the  sheep.  That 
want  of  experience  is  a  strong  proof  of  itself,  that  resulting 


I  can  entertain  no  doubt  that  the  extent  of  the  injuries  thus 
inflicted  is  enormously  exaggerated. 

Influenced  by  these  latter  considerations,  and  by  the 
strong  counter  testimony  of  such  really  able  veterinarians  as 
Messrs.  Clark  and  Youatt,  and  the  silence  on  the  subject  of 
Mr.  Spooner  and  some  other  modern  writers,  I  was  formerly 
led  to  doubt  whether  the  larvae  of  the  oastrus  ovis  ever  did 
more  in  the  sheep's  head  than-  effect  a  degree  of  temporary 
irritation  of  the  lining  membranes,  which  might  produce 
serious  inconvenience  when  acting  in  concert  with  the 
inflammation  already  established  by  catarrhal  or  other 
cerebral  affections,  but  which  never  caused  death.  Again 
reminding  the  reader  that  I  speak  from  a  very  limited 
personal  knowledge  of  the  disease,  I  feel  it  due  to  frankness 
to  say  that  my  opinions  have  undergone  some  change.  The 
testimony  of  intelligent  men  has  satisfied  me  that  the  irrita- 
tion and  ultimate  inflammation  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
head  produced  by  the  tentacula  of  the  worm  and  by  its 
constant  feeding  on  the  secretions  if  not  even  on  the 
substance  of  the  membrane  itself,  in  certain  stages  of  the 
disease,  *  are  sufficient  in  some  cases  to  cause  death.  I  should 
not  expect  a  sheep  in  high  condition  and  apparent  health  to 
die  suddenly  from  this  cause  without  previous  symptoms 
of  disease,  and  under  circumstances  resembling  those 
of  apoplexy.  I  should  not  expect  the  powerful  nervous 
disturbances  of  epilepsy.  But  if  the  sheep  began  to  fall 
oft"  rapidly  in  condition  a  little  before  the  opening  of  spring, 
without  any  other  traceable  cause  —  if  it  wandered  round 
with  irregular  movements,  twisting  about  its  head  occa- 
sionally as  if  it  was  suffering  pain  —  and  especially  if  the 
mucus  discharged  from  the  nose  was  tinged  with  blood  —  I 

*  This  may  be  more  doubtful. 


HYDATID    ON    THE     BRAIN.  277 

should  suspect  "  grub  in  the  head,"  and  administer  remedies 
or  antidotes  on  that  hypothesis.  And  after  the  death  of 
patients,  I  should  as  carefully  as  practicable  examine  not  only 
the  sinuses  of  the  head,  but  also  the  entire  nasal  cavities,  to 
ascertain  whether  there  were  any  traces  of  the  supposed 
destructive  action  of  the  Iarva3. 

Some  farmers  protect  their  sheep  measurably  from  the  attacks 
of  the  oestrus  ovis,  by  plowing  a  furrow  or  two  in  different  por- 
tions of  their  pastures.  The  sheep  thrust  their  noses  into  this 
on  the  approach  of  the  fly.  Others  smear  their  noses  with  tar, 
or  cause  them  to  smear  them  themselves,  by  sprinkling  their 
salt  over  tar.  Those  fish  oils  which  repel  the  attacks  of  flies 
might  be  resorted  to.  Blacklock  suggested  the  dislodgement 
of  the  larvae  from  the  head  by  blowing  tobacco  smoke  up  the 
nostrils, —  as  it  is  said  to  be  effectual.  It  is  blown  from  the 
tail  of  a  pipe,  the  bowl  being  covered  with  cloth.  Tobacco 
water  is  sometimes  injected 'with  a  syringe  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  last  should  be  prevented  from  entering  the 
throat  in  any  considerable  quantity. 

I  trust  that  scientific  and  impartial  investigation  will 
henceforth  be  more  directed  to  a  determination  of  the  actual 
existence  and  proper  treatment  of  this  real  or  supposed 
malady. 

HYDATID  ON  THE  BRAIN.  —  This  disease,  known  as 
turnsick,  sturdy,  staggers,  etc.,  is  spoken  of  by  Chancellor 
Livingston,  and  other  writers  of  reputation,  as  having 
occurred  in  this  country  within  their  own  observation.  I 
have  never  seen  a  case  of  it,  and  shall  be  obliged,  therefore, 
to  make  use  of  the  descriptions  of  others.  Mr.  Spooner  says : 

"  The  symptoms  are  a  dull,  moping  appearance,  the  sheep 
separating  from  the  flock,  a  wandering  and  blue  appearance 
to  the  eye,  and  sometimes  partial  or  total  blindness ;  the  sheep 
appears  unsteady  in  its  walk,  will  sometimes  stop  suddenly 
and  fall  down,  at  others  gallop  across  the  field,  and  after  the 
disease  has  existed  for  some  time  will  almost  constantly  move 
round  in  a  circle  —  there  seems,  indeed,  to  be  an  aberration 
of  the  intellect  of  the  animal.  These  symptoms,  though  rarely 
all  present  in  the  same  subject,  are  yet  sufficiently  marked 
to  prevent  the  disease  being  mistaken  for  any  other.  On 
examining  the  brain  of  sturdied  sheep,  we  find  what  appears 
to  be  a  watery  bladder,  termed  a  hydatid,  which  may  be 
either  small  or  of  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  This  hydatid,  one 
of  the  class  of  entozoons,  has  been  termed  by  naturalists  the 


278  HYDATID    ON    THE    BKAIN. 

hydatis  polyceplialm  cerebralis,  which  signifies  the  many- 
headed  hydatid  of  the  brain ;  these  heads  being  irregularly 
distributed  on  the  surface  of  the  bladder,  and  on  the  front 
part  of  each  head,  there  is  a  mouth  surrounded  by  minute, 
sharp  hooks  within  a  ring  of  sucking  disks.  These  disks 
serve  as  the  means  of  attachment  by  forming  a  vacuum,  and 
bring  the  mouth  in  contact  with  the  surface,  and  thus  by  the 
aid  of  the  hooks  the  parasite  is  nourished.  The  coats  of  the 
hydatid  are  disposed  in  several  layers,  one  of  which  appears 
to  possess  a  muscular  power.  These  facts  are  developed  by 
the  microscope,  which  also  discovers  numerous  little  bodies 
adhering  to  the  internal  membrane.  The  fluid  in  the  bladder 
is  usually  clear,  but  occasionally  turbid,  and  then  it  has  been 
found  to  contain  a  number  of  minute  worms."  . 

According  to  Mr.  Youatt,  this  disease  attacks  many  of  the 
weakly  lambs  in  the  English  flocks.  It  usually  appears,  he 
remarks,  "  during  the  first  year  of  the  animal's  life,  and  when 
he  is  about  or  under  six  months  old."  It  succeeds  "a  severe 
winter  and  a  cold,  wet  spring."  He  says  : 

"  If  there  is  only  one  parasite  inhabiting  the  brain  of  a 
sturdied  sheep,  its  situation  is  very  uncertain.  It  is  mostly 
found  beneath  the  pia-mater,  lying  upon  the  brain,  and  in  or 
upon  the  scissure  between  the  two  hemispheres.  If  it  is 
within  the  brain,  it  is  generally  in  one  of  the  ventricles,  but 
occasionally  in  the  substance  of  the  brain,  and,  in  a  few 
instances,  in  that  of  the  cerebellum.  *  *  *  This  is  a 
singular  disease ;  but  it  is  a  sadly  prevalent  and  fatal  one  in 
wet  and  moorish  districts.  *  *  *  It  is  much  more  fatal 
in  France  than  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  supposed  that  nearly  a 
million  of  sheep  are  destroyed  in  France  every  year  by  this 
pest  of  the  ovine  race.  *  *  *  The  means  of  cure  are 
exceedingly  limited.  They  are  confined  to  tne  removal  or 
destruction  of  the  vesicle.  Medicine  is  altogether  out  of  the 
question  here." 

Many  barbarous  methods  have  been  adopted  to  rupture 
the  hydatid.  Mr.  James  Hogg  thrust  a  wire  up  the  nostrils 
of  the  sheep,  and  through  the  plate  of  the  ethmoid  bone  into 
the  brain,  and  thus,  as  he  assures  us,  punctured  the  hydatid 
and  "  cured  many  a  sheep ! "  *  This  practice,  which  I  can  not 
characterize  otherwise  than  as  atrocious,  is  justly  condemned 
by  Mr.  Youatt.  Mr.  Parkinson  "  pulled  the  ears  very  hard 
for  some  time,"  and  then  cut  them  off'  close  to  the  head !  f 

*  Hose  on  Sheep,  p.  59. 

t  Parkinson  on  Sheep,  Vol.  1,  p.  412. 


WATER   ON   THE   BRAIN.  279 

Where  the  hydatid  is  not  imbedded  in  the  brain,  its 
constant  pressure,  singularly  enough,  causes  a  portion  of  the 
cranium  to  be  absorbed,  and  finally  the  part  immediately  over 
the  hydatid  becomes  thin  and  soft  enough  to  yield  under  the 
pressure  of  the  finger.  When  such  a  spot  is  discovered,  the 
English  veterinarians  usually  dissect  back  the  muscular 
integuments,  remove  a  portion  of  the  bone,  carefully  divide 
the  investing  membranes  of  the  brain,  and  then,  if  possible, 
remove  the  hydatid  whole  —  or,  failing  to  do  this,  remove 
its  fluid  contents.  The  membranes  and  integuments  are  then 
restored  to  their  position,  and  an  adhesive  plaster  placed  over 
the  whole.  The  French  veterinarians  usually  simply  puncture 
the  cranium  and  the  cist  with  a  trochar,  and  laying  the  sheep 
on  its  back,  permit  the  fluid  to  run  out  through  the  orifice 
thus  made.  A  common  awl  would  answer  every  purpose  for 
such  a  puncture.  The  puncture  would  be  the  preferable 
method  for  the  unskilled  practitioner.  But  when  we  take 
into  consideration  the  hazard  and  cruelty  attending  the 
operation  at  best,  and  the  conceded  liability  of  a  return  of  the 
malady  —  the  growth  of  new  hydatids  —  it  becomes  apparent 
that,  in  this  country,  it  would  not  be  worth  while,  unless  in 
the  case  of  uncommonly  valuable  sheep,  to  resort  to  any 
other  remedy  than  depriving  the  miserable  animal  of  life.  * 

WATER  ON  THE  BRAIN. —  I  have  never  seen  this  disease. 
It  was  first  described  by  Mr.  Youatt  as  an  effusion  of  serous 
fluid,  or  water,  without  being  confined  in  any  sack  or  bladder, 
within  the  cavity  occupied  by  the  brain,  or  between  its 
investing  membranes.  It  is  peculiar  to  young  lambs,  and 
sometimes  occupies  the  head  before  birth,  giving  it  unusual 
size,  and  rendering  parturition  difficult.  The  skull  is  a  little 
enlarged ;  the  bones  of  it  are  generally  thin ;  but  sometimes 
they  are  thickened.  The  appetite  occasionally  fails,  but 
oftener  is  increased ;  the  bowels  are  usually  constipated  — 
though  sometimes  they  are  relaxed ;  the  lamb  appears  more 
or  less  stupid;  is  disinclined  to  move;  staggers  slightly;  pines 
away  "almost  to  a  skeleton,"  and  dies  before  it  is  two  months 
old.  Mr.  Youatt,  after  pronouncing  the  disease  generally 
incurable,  advises  the  administration  "of  purgatives  and 
tonics  combined  —  the  epsoni  salts  with  ginger  and  gentian 
and  small  doses  of  mercurial  medicine,  the  blue  pill,  in  doses 

*  I  take  the  above  remarks  and  quotations  on  the  subject  of  this  disease  from  my 
Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,  having  learned  nothing  new  in  relation  to  it  since 
that  work  was  written. 


280  APOPLEXY. 

of  four  or  five  grains,"  with  plenty  of  good  milk,  exercise  and 
air.  Mr.  Spooner  says : — "  Nothing  can  be  done  in  the  way 
of  treatment," —  and  he  soundly  adds  : — "  But  it  will  be 
prudent  not  to  breed  again  from  the  ewe ;  and  if  there 
are  many  such  cases,  the  ram,  too,  may  be  changed  with 
advantage,  for  it  is  evident  the  disease  is  owing  to  some 
constitutional  fault  in  the  parents,  or  mismanagement  during 
utero  gestation." 

APOPLEXY.  —  Apoplexy  is  frequent  among  the  improved 
mutton  breeds  of  sheep  in  England — which,  from  their  birth 
to  the  time  of  their  being  butchered,  are  steadily  forced 
forward  into  the  utmost  attainable  growth  by  rich  and 
stimulating  food.  During  their  whole  lives,  they  are  in  a 
condition  of  over-fatness  and  plethora  —  and  apoplexy  is  a 
natural  result. 

This  disease  is  very  rare  among  American  sheep,  and  I 
have  never  personally  seen  an  instance  of  it.  Yet  when 
fleshy  sheep  are  first  turned  out  to  grass  in  the  spring,  and 
the  sun  beats  down  with  that  burning  heat  occasionally 
characteristic  of  our  spring  weather,  one  of  the  fattest  sheep 
in  the  flock  is,  suddenly,  without  a  premonition  of  disease, 
found  lying  dead  on  the  ground.  Sometimes  one  is  seen  to 
leap  suddenly  and  frantically  into  the  air,  act  as  if  unconscious, 
stagger,  fall  and  die  within  five,  ten,  or  fifteen  minutes.  The 
farmer  has  a  ready-made  name  for  the  malady.  The  sheep 
has  "  grub  in  the  head,"  and  the  grubs  have  just  "  bored 
through  and  penetrated  the  brain!"  (See  Grub  in  the  Head.) 
If  the  perishing  sheep  was ,  examined  closely,  it  is  probable 
that  the  eye  would  be  found  staring — the  pupils  dilated — the 
sight  nearly  gone.  If  additionally  the  membranes  of  the  nose 
and  eyes  were  found  of  a  deep  red  or  violet  color,  as  if  engorged 
with  blood,  I  should  not  doubt  the  presence  of  apoplexy. 

The  treatment,  when  all  treatment  is  not  too  late,  is 
immediate  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein,  until  the  animal 
shows  signs  of  weakness.  Mr.  Youatt  and  Mr.  Spooner  speak 
of  a  pound  as  about  the  appropriate  quantity  of  blood  to  be 
taken,  but  I  am  confident  this  would  be  found  too  much  for 
the  classes  of  American  sheep  —  the  Merino  and  its  grades  — 
which  are  kept  for  wool  growing  purposes.  Mr.  Youatt  says 
four  ounces  of  epsom  salts  should  be  administered  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  bleeding,  and  an  additional  ounce  every  six 
hours  until  the  bowels  are  opened.  Mr.  Spooner  says  that 
two  or  three  ounces  of  salt  should  be  administered,  and  to 


INFLAMMATION   OF   BRAIN  —  LOCKED  JAW.  281 

lambs  half  that  dose.  I  should  prefer  Mr.  Spooner's  prescrip- 
tion —  but  for  the  Merino  sheep,  would  be  inclined  to  reduce 
it  to  two  ounces  of  the  salts,  followed  by  an  ounce  in  six 
hours,  until  a  copious  evacuation  took  place. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BRAIN.  —  This  is  a  secondary 
effect  of  the  causes  which  produce  apoplexy,  by  which  the 
substance  of  the  brain,  its  membranes,  or  both,  become  the 
subject  of  inflammation.  The  symptoms  are  much  more 
violent  than  the  preceding.  After  a  degree  of  dullness  and 
inactivity,  accompanied  by  redness  and  protrusion  of  the  eyes, 
the  animal  becomes  delirious,  rushes  about  the  field  "  with  its 
tail  cocked,"  attacks  men  and  trees ;  and,  says  Mr.  Spooner, 
"in  lambs  their  motions  are  quite  ridiculous,  and  have  in 
consequence,  among  the  ignorant,  given  origin  to  the  idea  of 
their  being  bewitched."  The  disease  is  treated  in  the  same 
way  with  apoplexy. 

TETANUS  OR  LOCKED  JAW. —  In  the  spring  of  1861, 1  had 
about  eighty  rams  —  the  "  culls  "  *  which  had  been  accumula- 
ting for  two  or  three  years  in  a  breeding  flock  then  numbering 
three  thousand.  They  were  castrated  —  a  portion  of  them 
by  slitting  tKe  scrotum  and  tying  the  spermatic  cords  with 
waxed  thread  in  the  usual  way  that  old  rams  are  altered  — 
a  portion  of  them  (mostly  yearlings  and  those  older  ones 
which  had  small  spermatic  cords,)  by  cutting  off  the  end  of 
the  scrotum  and  removing  the  testicles  precisely  as  is  done  in 
the  case  of  lambs  —  i.  e.,  by  pulling  them  out !  This  last 
novel  mode  I  permitted  as  an  experiment,  on  the  urgent 
solicitation  of  the  operator,  a  person  of  great  experience  and 
practical  skill  in  such  matters,  and  who  had  heard  of  its  being 
practiced  with  success.  And  I  am  bound  to  state  that  not 
one,  or  not  more  than  one,  of  the  rams  castrated  in  this 
unusual  way  was  among  the  victims  I  am  about  to  describe,  f 

Owing  to  preceding  bad  weather  and  other  hindrances, 
the  sheep  were  castrated  rather  late,  and  the  flies  caused 
much  trouble.  After  the  lapse  of  about  ten  days,  when  the 
animals  appeared  to  be  doing  well  enough,  three  or  four  of 
them  were  suddenly  found  entirely  rigid  and  unable  to  walk, 
or  only  retaining  some  command  over  the  muscles  of  the 

*  They  were  those  which  promised  too  well  to  be  castrated  when  lambs,  but 
which  did  not  develop  themselves  satisfactorily  as  they  grew  older. 

t  This  may  have  been  because  they  were  younger,  or  had  smaller  spermatic  cords 
—  but  it  at  least  shows  that  the  mode  is  as  safe  as  any  other  with  such  sheep. 


282  EPILEPSY. 

fore-legs,  while  the  hind  parts  were  as  immovable  as  if  already 
stiffened  by  death.  Their  jaws  were  set.  The  parts  of  the 
abdomen  near  the  scrotum  were  considerably  swollen  and 
very  hard.  They  generally  stood  with  their  legs  a  little 
farther  apart  than  usual,. but  their  postures  were  so  natural 
that  at  a  few  rods  distance  their  situation,  or  that  anything 
unusual  was  the  matter  with  them,  would  not  have  been 
suspected  by  anybody.  Some  six  or  eight  others  were 
speedily  attacked  and  the  symptoms  were  the  same.  There 
was  not,  in  a  single  instance,  any  peculiar  protrusion  or 
retraction  of  the  head  or  any  other  member ;  and  though  I 
watched  them  for  hours,  I  did  not  discover  the  least  approach 
to  a  convulsion,  or  even  a  spasm  involving  a  single  muscle. 
They  gave  no  peculiar  evidences  of  pain  —  breathed  without 
difficulty — and  I  think  that  they  all  died  within  about  twenty- 
four  hours  from  the  time  their  situation  was  discovered.  *  As 
their  jaws  were  immovably  fixed,  no  internal  remedies  could 
be  administered,  and  I  thought  that  the  administration  of 
external  ones  under  such  circumstances  would  be  labor 
thrown  away. 

The  malady  is  very  rare  in  the  United  States,  but  as  it  is 
liable  to  recur  I  will  mention  that  the  foreign  veterinarians 
recommend  prompt  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein,  and  ape- 
rient medicines,  followed  by  opiates — also  warmth  and  quiet. 
Mr.  Spooner  omits  bleeding  from  his  recommendations. 

EPILEPSY.  —  Mr.  Youatt  remarks  that  "  tetanus  and 
epilepsy  may  be  regarded  as  kindred  diseases  in  all  animals ;  but 
that  in  none  do  they  assimilate  to  each  other  as  in  the  sheep." 

Epilepsy  appears  to  be  extremely  prevalent  in  England 
and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  btit  is  unusual  in  this  country. 
The  sheep  when  laboring  under  its  attack,  suddenly  ceases  to 
feed,  stares  about  stupidly,  runs  round  with  a  staggering  gait, 
falls  to  the  ground,  lays  there  struggling  for  a  few  moments, 
and  then  gets  up  and  remains  for  some  period  in  a  semi- 
conscious state.  These  attacks  recur,  and  a  severer  one  ends 
in  death.  It  is  thought  to  result  from  high  condition  and  the 
nature  of  the  pasturage  —  aided  by  certain  not  very  well 
understood  incidental  causes.  In  England  it  is  commonest 
early  in  spring  .  and  late  in  autumn.  It  is  so  prevalent  in 

*  I  am  ashamed  to  say  that  being  peculiarly  hurried  at  the  time,  I  made  no  con- 
temporaneous written  record  of  the  facts, —  and  therefore  am  compelled  partly  to 
guess  at  them,  as  do  all  persons  who  rely  on  their  recollections  for  minute  and  exact 
facts  in  such  cases.  But  the  general  course  of  symptoms  I  have  described  are  dis- 
tinctly remembered  by  me. 


PALSY  —  BABIES.  283 

certain  districts  of  France,  that  the  people  have  given  up 
sheep  husbandry.  Tessier  ascribes  it  to  the  pasturage. 
Gasparin  states  that  it  is  most  destructive  in  Germany  in 
spring  and  summer,  but  sometimes  in  the  winter.  He  says 
the  shepherds  •  of  that  country  attribute  it  to  the  sheep's 
eating  the  sproutings  of  the  pine  in  spring,  and  some  species 
of  dock  and  garlic  in  the  winter.  *  It  would  seem  that  in 
regions  where  it  particularly  prevails,  flocks  acquire  a  predis- 
position to  this  malady ;  and  the  farmers  of  Beauce,  in  France, 
either  get  rid  of  the  whole  flock  in  which  it  appears,  or  they 
kill  every  sheep  in  any  degree  affected  by  it.  f 

PALSY. —  I  never  have  seen  an  instance  of  this  malady. 
It  consists  in  a  suspension  of  the  nervous  influence  on  the 
muscles  —  the  opposite  of  tetanus  and  epilepsy,  by  which 
they  are  excited  to  unnatural  action.  The  sheep  sometimes 
becomes  powerless  in  every  limb  and  unable  to  move ;  some- 
times the  palsy  extends  only  to  the  loins  or  hind-quarters. 
It  is  produced  by  cold  and  improper  exposure, —  and  some- 
times, it  is  thought,  by  improper  feed.  Young  lambs  when 
yeaned  in  very  cold  weather,  and  lambs  soon  after  weaning 
when  they  receive  too  plentiful  and  stimulating  food,  are 
most  subject  to  its  attacks  —  though  grown  sheep  are  not 
exempt  from  them,  and  pai-ticularly,  says  Mr.  Spooner,  "  the 
ewe  that  has  aborted  or  produced  her  lamb  with  diificulty 
and  after  a  tedious  labor  in  cold  weather." 

The  treatment  of  the  disease  consists,  in  the  case  of  a 
chilled  lamb,  in  the  restoration  of  warmth,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  warm  gruel  with  a  little  ginger  —  and  if  activity  is 
not  soon  restored,  with  the  addition  also  of  a  small  quantity 
of  ale.  If  diarrhea  ensues,  the  "  sheep's  cordial "  is  given. 
In  the  case  of  older  sheep  Mr.  Youatt  recommends  removal 
to  a  more  comfortable  situation,  and  a  purgative  consisting 
of  epsom  salts  and  ginger,  followed  by  a  dose  or  two  of  the 
cordial. 

RABIES. —  On  Christmas  eve,  1862,  some  sheep  belonging 
to  my  son,  Henry  P.  Randall,  were  bitten  by  a  dog.  I  saw 
them  next  morning.  The  flock  consisted  of  about  one 
hundred  ewes,  three  years  old  last  spring,  and  in  lamb.  I 
thought  a  dozen  or  more  were  wounded ;  but  as  their  hurts 
did  not  appear  dangerous,  I  did  not  go  to  the  trouble  of 

*  Quoted  by  Youatt,  p.  398.          t  IMd. 


284  BABIES. 

ascertaining  the  precise  number.  All  were  bitten,  so  far  as  I 
could  discover,  only  about  the  head,  and  principally  about  the 
nose  and  ears.  The  ears  of  some  of  them  were  torn  into 
shreds,  and  their  noses  and  lips  covered  with  tooth  marks, 
showing  that  the  attack  on  them  had  been  long  persisted  in. 
This  was  evidently  the  work  of  an  animal  which  was  unable 
to  kill  the  sheep  outright. 

On  Christmas  morning,  a  small  dog,  belonging  to  a 
neighbor,  was  found  attacking  some  sheep  owned  by  the 
Messrs.  Freer,  kept  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the 
preceding.  He  had  wounded  two  of  them  in  the  same  way, 
'but  more  severely,  when  he  was  discovered  and  driven  away. 
He  returned  to  the  attack  not  long  afterwards,  was  again 
detected,  followed  home,  and  killed  the  same  day.  The  idea 
of  his  being  rabid  did  not  then  occur  to  any  one,  though  the 
facts  I  have  since  learned  lead  to  the  impression  that  his 
disease  would  have  been  apparent  to  a  person  familiar  with 
its  symptoms. 

The  wounds  on  H.  P.  Randall's  sheep  were  found  to  heal 
rapidly,  and  nothing  was  done  for  them.  On  the  12th  of 
January,  1863,  he  informed  me  that  he  had  found  one  of  the 
bitten  sheep  on  the  ground  unable  to  rise;  that,  on  his 
helping  it  up,  it  moved  about  with  difficulty.  It  had  frothy 
saliva  about  its  mouth.  The  next  day  it  died.  He  had 
observed  some  ewes  riding  each  other  about,  prior  to  the 
12th,  but  did  not  know  whether  the  dead  one  was  one  of 
these. 

On  the  14th  of  January,  he  informed  me  that  two  or  three 
of  the  wounded  sheep  were  riding  and  fighting  each  other ; 
that  one  of  them  had  suddenly  butted  him  from  behind ;  that 
on  his  turning  and  offering  to  kick  it,  it  would  not  retreat. 
He  confined  it  in  the  barn. 

I  saw  the  flock  in  the  afternoon.  It  was  in  fine  condition. 
The  wounds  of  the  bitten  sheep  were  mostly  healed ;  and, 
with  two  exceptions,  they  looked  as  healthy  and  full  as 
any  in  the  flock.  Two  of  the  sheep  were  obviously  laboring 
under  an  attack  of  rabies.  I  continued  to  visit  these  and  the 
succeeding  cases  daily,  and  generally  twice  a  day,  until  the 
29th  of  January,  and  until  all  the  earlier  cases  observed  by 
me  (seven)  terminated  in  death.*  I  usually  remained  from 

*  As  each  sheep  was  attacked  it  was  immediately  caught  out  of  the  flock.  The 
two  first  cases  were  put  first  in  a  barn  and  afterwards  in  a  small  pen  together,  shel- 
tered on  the  north  by  a  stack.  The  third  one  was  put  in  a  pen  about  twenty  by  forty 
feet,  partly  sheltered  on  the  north  by  a  barn  and  on  the  west  by  an  overhanging  straw 
stack,  and  the  other  four  were  placed  also  in  this  larger  pen  as  fast  as  attacked. 


CASES    OP   BABIES.  285 

three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an  hour  at  each  visit,  carefully 
noting  the  appearance  and  actions  of  the  sheep,  and  keep- 
ing a  separate  and  continuous  record  of  each  case,  as  I 
was  able  to  do  without  the  least  danger  of  mistaking  one 
animal  for  another  —  as  every  one  exhibited  its  number 
clearly  printed  on  its  side. 

The  history  of  these  cases  is  published  fully  in  the  annual 
volume  of  Transactions  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society  for  1862,  and  is  quite  too  long  for  re-publication  here. 
The  recapitulation  appended  by  me  to  that  history  is  as 
follows : 

SUMMARY. 

The  cases  I  have  described  present  variations  in  the  minor 
developments  of  rabies,  owing  perhaps  to  individual  peculiari- 
ties of  the  different  annuals  ;  but,  as  a  whole,  there  has  been 
a  remarkable  identity  in  the  general  symptoms. 

Assuming  that  the  rabid  sheep,  which  I  have  designated 
as  No.  3,  was  seen  by  me  on  the  iirst  day  of  the  attack  of  the 
disease — a  fact  of  which  I  entertain  no  doubt  after  comparing 
the  subsequent  symptoms  with  those  of  the  later  ones  —  and 
estimating  the  two  first  numbered  cases  to  have  had  the 
average  duration  of  the  other  five,  the  period  of  "  incubation  " 
in  the  whole  seven,  (that  is,  the  period  between  the  sheep's 
being  bitten  and  the  appearance  of  rabies,)  ranged  from 
fifteen  to  twenty -six  days,  and  averaged  about  twenty -one 
days. 

The  first  observed  symptom,  in  every  case  which  was 
seen  at  or  near  its  commencement,  was  the  same,  viz., 
ungovernable  apparent  salacity,  (lust,)  manifested  not  accord- 
ing to  the  sex  of  the  patients — -'all  of  which  were  ewes,  and 
supposed  to  be  in  lamb  —  but  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
ram  exhibits  sexual  heat.  This  resemblance  extended  to  the 
minutest  particulars  in  movements,  postures,  and  in  that 
characteristic  note  with  which  the  male  animal  expresses 
desire  as  he  approaches  and  importunes  the  female.  In  no 
instance  did  the  rabid  ewe  show  any  of  the  usual  indications  of 
rutting.  She  incessantly  attempted  to  ride  her  companions, 
but  uniformly  manifested  rage,  and  turned  and  fought  the  one 
attempting  to  ride  her.  This  propensity  remained  active 
until  the  sheep  became  too  weak  to  exercise  it,  and  never 
entirely  ceased. 

In  all  the  cases,  rumination  was  totally  suspended  from  the 
first  visible  attack  of  the  disease  until  death ;  and  throughout 


286  CASES    OF    RABIES. 

the  same  period,  all  the  patients,  with  perhaps  one  exception,* 
were  not  seen  to  consume  an  ounce  of  natural  food,  though 
the  choicest  was  repeatedly  offered  to  them  —  in  some 
instances,  where  they  had  been  purposely  deprived  of  it  for 
twenty-four  hours.  They,  however,  manifested  a  depraved 
appetite.  All  of  them  frequently  ate  wool  from  each  other, 
and  gnawed  the  rails  of  their  pen.  One  was  seen  to  eat  dung 
balls  from  the  breech  of  another  —  another,  snow  which  had 
just  been  saturated  with  sheep's  urine  —  and  two  eagerly 
to  lick  the  mucus  and  saliva  from  the  nose  and  mouth  of  a 
dead  one,  and  afterwards  the  post-mortem  discharges  from 
the  same  parts.  They  preyed  upon  every  substance  within 
their  reach  which  was  unnatural  as  food,  except  the  flesh  of 
their  dead  companions.  Their  eating,  as  I  have  termed  it, 
was  attended,  so  far  as  could  be  observed,  with  no  regular 
mastication.  When  they  gnawed  the  rails  of  their  pen,  they 
held  their  heads  down  and  extended,  so  that  it  could  not  be 
seen  whether  they  masticated  or  not.  They  did  not  pause 
and  raise  their  heads  to  do  so,  but  continued  intently  gnawing. 
The  only  evidence  I  had  of  their  swallowing  the  wood  was, 
that  considerable  quantities  of  it  were  bitten  from  all  parts  of 
the  pen  and  none  of  it  could  be  found  on  the  snow  underneath ; 
and  as  some  of  the  wood  gnawed  was  of  a  red,  and  much  of 
it  of  a  dark  color,  it  would  have  been  readily  visible  there. 
When  they  ate  wool,  dung  balls  and  the  like,  they  generally 
snatched  them,  as  if  in  haste,  and  in  all  cases  swallowed  them 
after  two  or  three  rapid  movements  of  the  jaws,  which  were 
apparently-only  made  to  place  the  substance  in  a  situation  to 
be  forced  into  the  esophagus.  t 

No  exhibition  of  thirst  was  observed  in  any  case,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  no  dread  of  water,  when  it  was  placed  in  a 
pail  before  them.  One  played  in  the  water  with  her  nose,  as 
a  horse  is  often  seen  to  do,  and  drank  a  little  without  apparent 
difficulty.  One  or  two  were  seen  to  nibble  a  little  ice  or 
snow  on  two  or  three  occasions. 

The  evacuation  of  both  dung  and  urine  was  very  slight. 
The  feces  appeared  natural  in  color  and  consistency. 

I  came  to  the  conclusion,  after  considerable  hesitation, 
that  the  disease,  in  its  earlier  stages,  and  perhaps  through- 
out, was  accompanied  by  a  slight  unnatural  expression  of  the 

*  No.  7  was  seen  for  an  instant  attempting  to  ride  another  sheep  the  afternoon 
before  the  disease,  apparently,  was  fully  developed.  She  resumed  eating  hay  while  1 
stood  looking  on.  I  observed  her  eating  for  perhaps  five  minutes.  When  I  next  saw 
her  she  waa  rabid. 


CASES    OP   BABIES.  287 

eyes,  which,  for  the  want  of  a  more  expressive  term,  I  have 
called  glistening.  But  I  do  not  think  any  one  could  safely 
undertake  to  select  a  rabid  sheep  from  a  flock,  even  if  one 
was  known  to  be  there,  by  this  indication  alone.  Yet 
obscure  as  is  this  symptom,  it  is  the  only  one  which  distin- 

fuishes  the  rabid  sheep,  in  appearance,  from  one  in  perfect 
ealth,  until  emaciation  and  the  other  later  effects  of  the 
malady  exhibit  themselves.  The  animal  is  as  gregarious  as 
ever ;  eats  its  food  and  ruminates  as  placidly  as  usual ;  looks 
as  plump,  bright  and  healthy  as  any  sheep  in  the  flock ;  half 
an  hour  later,  with  looks  entirely  unchanged,  unless  in  the 
trifling  particular  named,  it  is  moving  round  restlessly  and 
incessantly  among  its  companions,  struck  by  a  malady  which 
has  transformed  the  habits  of  its  sex* — which  no  human 
power  can  arrest  or  even  palliate  —  and  which  will  know  no 
respite  until  terminated  in  a  miserable  death. 

The  subsequent  occurrence  and  progress  of  the  symptoms, 
in  the  cases  observed  by  me,  were  about  as  follows  : —  The 
rabid  sheep  both  exhibited  and  provoked  extreme  rage  when 
they  were  first  put  in  a  pen  with  other  rabid  sheep ;  they 
fought  or  pursued  each  other  fiercely;  but  this  mood  soon 
subsided  in  the  new  comers,  and  for  the  next  twenty-four 
hours  they  remained  comparatively  peaceable,  at  least  unag- 

§*essive,  but  they  were  ever  ready  to  fight  on  being  ridden, 
n  the  second  day  the  depraved  appetite  manifested  itself, 
and  they  began  to  rub  their  heads  against  fences,  walls,  etc., 
and  to  scratch  them  with  their  own  hind-feet,  leading  to  the 
inference  that  they  were  suffering  some  cerebral  pain.  The 
part  of  the  head  invariably  rubbed  was  that  over  the  parietal 
bones.  On  the  second  or  third  day  the  scars  left  by  the  dog's 
teeth  looked  red  and  inflamed.  The  sheep  were  more  restless 
and  irritable  ;  they  frequently  assailed  their  companions 
without  any  provocation ;  they  fiercely  butted,  and  two  of 
them  actually  bit  at  a  stick,  as  often  as  it  was  pushed  against 
or  towards  them.  On  the  third  or  fourth  day  they  rushed  at 
a  man  if  he  entered  their  pen  —  bounded  forward  and  dashed 
against  the  fence  which  separated  them  from  him,  on  his 
thrusting  a  stick  at  them.  Three  of  them  thus  charged  the 
fence,  if  only  a  hat  or  handkerchief  was  shaken  towards  them. 
Two  were  so  ungovernably  fierce  at  times  that  they  sprung  at 
a  bystander  if  he  uttered  a  sound  or  merely  approached  their 
pen.  They  bounded  forward  when  they  made  these  assaults, 

*  At  least  so  in  the  caae  of  ewes. 


288  CASES    OF    BABIES. 

most  of  them  emitting  that  loud,  snuffing  sound  (caused  by  a 
violent  expulsion  of  air  through  the  nostrils,)  by  which  rams, 
bulls,  etc.,  often  express  their  rage  at  the  approach  of  some 
strange  object.  Two  of  them  opened  their  mouths,  gnashing 
and  threatening  to  bite,  whenever  they  attacked  a  man  or  a 
stick,  but  I  did  not  see  them  offer  to  bite  when  fighting  their 
companions.  On  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  the  wounds  of  a  portion 
of  them,  more  or  less,  re-opened.  On  the  fifth  or  sixth  day 
they  began  to  exhibit'  considerable  weakness,  and  most  of  them 
displayed  less  ferocity.  No.  1,  however,  remained  indomit- 
ably savage  to  the  last ;  No.  3  remained  so  until  near  death ; 
and  No.  6,  after  a  temporary  lull,  became  more  deeply 
re-excited  and  ferocious,  and  remained  so  until  death.  These 
three  last  named  sheep  would  .rush  at  a  man,  a  stick,  or 
another  sheep,  when  they  were  so  weak  as  frequently  to  fall 
before  reaching  their  object,  and  as  soon  as  they  could  rise 
they  would  renew  the  attack.  They  and  others  frequently 
fought  each  other  when  in  this  condition,  constantly  lulling, 
and  some  of  them  uttering  short,  bleating  sounds,  or  groaning 
piteously  when  they  were  hurt.  Their  voices  on  such 
occasions  were  more  shrill  and  plaintive  than  the  notes  of 
the  healthy  sheep ;  but  the  only  one  I  heard  utter  the  usual 
prolonged  bleat,  with  which  sheep  call  to  each  other,  or  to 
their  keeper,  uttered  it  in  the  natural  key ;  and  this  was  on 
the  sixth  day  of  the  disease.* 

On  the  sixth  day,  one  of  the  sheep  began  to  rub  her 
breech,  often  and  hard,  against  the  fence,  and  she  continued 
this,  more  or  less,  until  death.  From  the  appearance  of  the 
parts,  I  inferred  this  was  occasioned  by  an  irritation  of  the 
vagina. 

Those  which  exhibited  the  greatest  decrease  of  aggressive- 
ness, as  their  strength  failed,  never  resumed  the  usual  timid 
habits  of  their  nature.  They  retreated  from  nothing ;  and  to 
the  last  if  a  man  entered  their  pen  and  threatened  them  with 
a  stick,  they  instantly  attacked  him. 

The  prostration  of  strength  progressed  with  different 
degrees  of  rapidity,  owing  probably  to  their  different  degrees 
of  constitutional  vigor ;  but  all  showed  much  and  rapidily 
increasing  debility  by  the  close  of  the  sixth  day.  Their 
respiration  was  labored  and  sometimes  irregular.  The  pulse 

*  Their  notes  were  in  no  case  very  "much  altered "  from  the  nsual  ones  which 
indicate  rage,  pain,  <fec.,  and  the  "  howl  of  the  dog,"  said  by  Mr.  Youatt  to  be  "char- 
acteristic of  the  disease,"  was  entirely  wanting.  I  do  not  suppose,  however,  Mr. 
Youatt  meant  to  be  understood  literally,  but  merely  that  the  key  of  their  voices  was 
changed,  and  rendered  high  and  plaintive,  as  in  the  case  of  the  rabM  dog. 


CASES    OF    RABIES.  289 

of  the  one  counted  rose  to  one  hundred  and  forty  a  minute. 
One  became  blind  in  one  eye,  one  in  both,  and  a  third  partly 
blind  in  one  eye.  The  cornea,  in  each  instance,  became 
opaque  and  white ;  but  this  happened  only  where  wounds  of 
the  dog's  teeth  could  be  found  on  the  lids  or  close  to  the 
affected  eye.  At  this  stage  the  scabs  of  nearly  all  of  them 
dried  up,  and  their  wounds  appeared  to  be  rapidly  healing 
again.  When  standing  quiet,  their  heads  sunk  down  low 
and  they  trembled  slightly  all  over,  as  an  animal  often  does 
after  drinking  cold  water.  Froth  exuded  in  rather  small 
quantities  from  the  front  part  of  the  mouths  of  two  or  three 
of  them,  and  ropy  saliva  fell  from  the  lips  of  one  to  the 
ground. 

The  last  day  or  two  of  their  lives  they  staggered  in  their 

fait,  fell  over  their  dead  companions,  and  rose  with  difficulty, 
"inally  they  became  unable  to  rise.  The  respiration  was 
more  labored  and  irregular,  and,  in  one  instance,  stertorous. 
Their  debility  was  extreme.  Even  at  this  stage,  and  until 
actually  dying,  they  did  not  manifest  that  degree  of  "stupor" 
and  "insensibility  to  all  that  is  going  forward,"  mentioned  by 
Mr.  Youatt.  They  looked  up  when  a  loud  or  unusual  noise 
was  made,  and  those  which  were  not  blind  evidently  took 
notice  of  objects  of  sight ;  and  not  one  of  them  to  the  last 
showed  the  least  indications  of  becoming  paralytic,  as  the 
same  distinguished  author  states  that  rabid  sheep  usually  do 
in  England.  Neither  the  appearance  of  the  ground,  nor  their 
postures,  indicated  convulsions  or  struggling  at  the  time  of 
their  death.  I  saw  none  of  them  die. 

The  five  cases  which  were  seen  throughout,  extended 
respectively  through  nine,  seven,  eight,  ten  and  six  days, 
giving  eight  days  as  the  average  duration  of  the  disease. 

While  the  preceding  statement  of  the  symptoms  of  rabies 
accords  in  its  leading  features  with  that  given  by  Mr.  Youatt, 
there  are  even  more  discrepancies  between  them  in  detail 
than  I  have  called  attention  to.  I  think  it  probable  that 
these  differences  are  due  in  some  measure  to  local  or  incidental 
circumstances,  such  as  the  peculiar  breed,  constitution  and 
habits  of  the  animals,  their  previous  keep,  etc.  In  all  these 
respects  the  American  Merino  differs  widely  from  the  English 
breeds.  The  season  of  the  year  when  the  cases  were  noted, 
may  also  have  had  an  influence.  And,  finally,  owing  to 
climate  or  other  undetected  causes,  the  malady  may  not 
assume  precisely  the  same  form  in  different  countries.  But 
be  all  this  as  it  may,  I  at  least  know  that  I  carefully  noticed, 
13 


290  CASES    OF    BABIES. 

and  instantly,  and,  so  far  as  I  could,  faithfully,  recorded  the 
facts  seen  by  my  own  eyes. 

No  remedies  were  administered  to  any  of  the  sheep,  under 
the  impression  that  it  would  be  utterly  useless,  and  attended 
with  disagreeable  if  not  dangerous  consequences. 

Professor  Hyde,  of  the  Geneva  Medical  College,  kindly 
promised  to  assist  me  in  making  post  mortem  examinations 
of  the  several  patients  —  but  necessary  absence  from  home 
prevented  it  from  being  attended  to  until  it  was  too  late.  I 
regretted  this  less,  because  it  is  well  known  that  in  all  such 
cases,  the  post  mortem  appearances  are  irregular,  unsatisfac- 
tory, and  not  characteristic  of  the  special  disease. 

Two  later  cases  occurred  in  the  same  flock,  from  the  bites 
inflicted  on  the  night  of  the  24th  of  December  —  in  the  last 
of  February  or  first  of  March,  according  to  my  present  recol- 
lection ;  but  I  can  not  speak  with  certainty,  having  given  my 
memoranda  to  an  Agricultural  Editor.  The  general  course 
of  the  disease  was  the  same.  The  last  animal  exhibited 
peculiar  violence,  fighting  a  stick  thrust  toward  her  with  a 
ferocity  resembling  that  of  an  enraged  dog;  and,  unlike  its 
predecessors,  it  constantly  uttered  short,  angry  bleats  when 
making  its  attacks.  It  remained  equally  furious  after  it  was 
unable  to  rise. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

DISEASES  OP  THE  DIGESTIVE  OEGANS, 

BLAIN  —  OBSTRUCTIONS  OF  THE  GULLET  —  THE  STOMACHS 
AND  THEIE  DISEASES EXTERNAL  AND  INTERNAL  APPEAR- 
ANCE OF  THE  STOMACHS THE  MODE  OF  ADMINISTERING 

MEDICINES  INTO  THE  STOMACHS  OF  SHEEP HOOVE POISONS 

INFLAMMATION    OF   THE    RUMEN,    OR   PAUNCH OBSTRUC- 
TION   OF   THE    MANIPLUS ACUTE   DROPSY,    OR   RED -WATER 

ENTERITIS,     OR    INFLAMMATION     OF    THE    COATS    OF    THE 

INTESTINES  DIARRHEA  DYSENTERY CONSTIPATION 

COLIC,    OR    STRETCHES BRAXY,  OR   INFLAMMATION    OF    THE 

BOWELS WORMS  —  PINING. 

BLAIN. —  This  malady,  as  has  been  remarked,  is  unknown 
in  the  United  States.  The  following  is  Mr.  Youatt's  descrip- 
tion of  its  symptoms  and  treatment : 

"  Sheep  are  liable,  although  not  so  much  as  cattle,  to  that 
inflammation  of  the  tongue,  or  rather  of  the  cellular  tissue  on 
the  side  of  and  under  the  tongue,  to  which  the  above  singular 
names  are  given.  A  few  sheep  in  the  flock  are  occasionally 
attacked  by  it,  or  it  appears  under  the  form  of  an  epidemic. 
A  discharge  of  saliva  runs  from  the  mouth ;  at  first  colorless 
and  devoid  of  smell,  but  soon  becoming  bloody,  purulent  and 
stinking.  The  head  and  neck  begin  to  swell,  and  the  animal 
breathes  with  difficulty,  and  is  sometimes  suffocated.  A 
succession  of  vesicles  have  risen  along  the  side  of  the  tongue — 
they  have  rapidly  grown  —  they  have  broken  —  they  have 
become  gangrenous  —  they  have  formed  deep  ulcers,  or 
deeper  abscesses  that  occasionally  break  outwardly.  When 
this  is  the  case  it  is  probably  the  "Greathead"  of  Mr. 
Hogg.  The  cause  is  some  unknown  atmospheric  influence  ; 
but  the  sheep  have  been  predisposed  to  be  affected  by  it, 
either  by  previous  unhealthy  weather,  by  feeding  on  unwhole- 
some herbage,  or  by  unnecessary  exposure  to  cold  and  wet. 


292  BLAIN  —  CHOKING 

"  Whatever  may  be  the  case  with  regard  to  cattle, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  blain  is  often  infectious  among 
sheep.  The  diseased  sheep  should  immediately  be  removed 
from  the  rest,  and  placed  ^in  a  separate  and  somewhat 
distant  pasture. 

"  The  malady  must  first  be  attacked  locally.  If  there  are 
any  vesicles  in  the  mouth  they  must  be  freely  lanced.  If  any 
tumors  appear  on  the  neck  or  face,  and  that  evidently  contain 
a  fluid,  they  must  be  opened.  The  ulcers  must  be  bathed 
with  warm  water  at  first,  and  until  the  matter  is  almost 
evacuated  —  then  lotions  of  cold  water,  in  each  pint  of  which 
one  drachm  of  the  chloride  of  lime  has  been  dissolved,  must 
be  diligently  used.  Aperients  must  be  administered  very 
cautiously,  and  not  at  all,  unless  there  is  considerable  consti- 
pation. The  strength  of  the  animal  must  be  supported  by 
any  farinaceous  food  that  it  can  be  induced  to  take  —  linseed 
mashes  —  bran  mashes  with  oatmeal  —  and  the  best  succulent 
vegetables,  as  carrots  and  mangel  wurzel ;  plenty  of  good, 
thick  gruel,  if  necessary,  being  horned  down,  and  two  drachms 
of  powdered  gentian  root  and  one  of  ginger,  with  four  grains 
of  powdered  cantharides,  being  given  morning,  noon  and 
night.  Bleeding  will  be  very  proper  in  this  disease  before 
the  vesicles  have  broken,  or  the  external  tumors  begun  to 
soften,  and  there  is  an  evident  and  considerable  degree  of 
fever ;  but  after  the  purulent,  fetid  matter  has  begun  to 
appear,  it  will  only  hasten  the  death  of  the  animal." 

OBSTRUCTIONS  OF  THE  GULLET. —  Sheep  are  much  less 
liable  to  become  "  choked "  than  cattle,  but  it  occasionally 
occurs  when  they  are  fed  cut  roots.  The  obstructing  sub- 
stance which  is  lodged  in  the  esophagus  or  gullet,  can 
sometimes  be  felt  from  the  outside,  and  moved  upward  or 
downward  by  the  pressure  of  the  fingers.  If  this  can  not  be 
done  the  sheep  should  be  placed  on  its  rump  between  a  man's 
legs  and  held  firmly  with  the  head  extended  upward  in  a  line 
with  the  neck.  Some  oil  should  then  be  poured  into  the 
throat,  and  a  flexible  probang  very  carefully  inserted  and 
pressed  down  with  sufficient  force  to  carry  the  obstruction 
before  it  into  the  stomach.  I  trust  gutta-percha  probangs  for 
this  purpose  will  soon  be  prepared  for  sale.  The  best 
implement  now  attainable  on  most  farms  is  a  strong,  flexible, 
elastic  rod  of  hickory  or  elm,  made  perfectly  smooth,  and 
not  far  from  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  A 


THE    STOMACHS.  293 

little  ba£  of  flax  seed  is  firmly  secured  to  the  lower  end,  and 
on  dipping  the  rod  into  hot  water  to  limber  it  for  use,  the 
bag  becomes  perfectly  soft  and  slippery.  Some  wind  the  end 
of  the  probang  with  tow  and  dip  it  in  oil. 

There  is  usually  no  great  difficulty  in  removing  the 
obstruction,  but  the  sheep  is  often  injured  so  that  it  subse- 
quently dies,  in  consequence  of  the  lacerations  inflicted  on  the 
parts  by  the  haste  or  carelessness  of  the  operator.  Too  much 
care  and  gentleness  can  not  be  manifested  in  every  part  of 
the  process. 

Where  the  obstruction  can  not  be  thus  removed,  veterinary 
practitioners  cut  down  upon  it  from  the  outside,  and  having 
removed  it,  the  edges  of  the  esophagus  are  carefully  brought 
together  with  two  or  three  stitches,  and  the  threads  left  long 
enough  to  project  from  the  external  wound.  The  skin  is  also 
stitched  together,  and  a  bandage  placed  without  much 
pressure  round  the  neck.  If  the  sheep  is  fleshy  a  moderate 
cathartic  should  be  administered,  and  it  should  be  kept  on 
mashes  or  gruel  until  the  wound  is  closed.  I  would  not, 
however,  recommend  this  process  to  persons  unfamiliar  with 
surgical  operations. 

THE  STOMACHS  AND  THEIK  DISEASES. —  I  shall  describe 
the  stomachs  to  some  extent  for  the  better  understanding  of 
their  diseases;  and  for  this  purpose  I  quote  the  following 
from  my  "  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South  "  : 

"  On  opening  the  abdomen  the  omentum  or  caul  is  found 
covering  the  intestines.  It  is  a  thin,  and,  in  a  normal  state, 
colorless  and  transparent  structure,  formed  of  two  membranes, 
between  which  extend  streaks  of  fat  in  the  form  of  a  net. 

"The  external  appearance  of  the  stomachs  is  given  in  the 
following  cut  (see  .next  page)  of  those  of  a  young  sheep 
which  died  of  disease.  Their  arrangement  is  slightly 
different  in  the  animal. 


294  STOMACHS  OF  THE  SHEEP. 


THE  STOMACHS. 

a,"  The  esophagus  or  gullet,  entering  the  rumen  or  paunch. 

6,  ft.  The  rumen,  or  paunch,  occupying  three-fourths  of  the  abdomen. 

c,  The  reticulum,  or  honey-comb  —  the  2d  stomach. 

d,  The  maniplus,  or  many  folds  —  the  3d  stomach. 
«,  The  abomasum,  or  4th  stomach. 

/,  The  commencement  of  the  duodenum  or  first  intestine. 

ff,  The  place  of  the  pylorus,  a  valve  which  separates  the  contents  of  the  aboma- 
sum and  duodenum. 

"The  walls  of  the  rumen  or  paunch  consist  of  four  coats  or 
tunics — 1st,  The  peritoneal  or  outer  coat;  2d,  The  muscular; 
3d,  The  mucous,  covered  with  papillae,  or  little  protuberances, 
from  which  (or  glands  under  which)  is  secreted  a  peculiar 
fluid  to  soften  and  prepare  the  food  for  re-mastication  ;  and, 
4th,  The  inner  or  cuticular  coat,  a  thin,  entirely  insensible 
membrane,  which  defends  the  mucous  coat  from  abrasion  or 
erosion." 


STOMACHS    OF   THE    SHEEP. 


295 


The  following   cut   which  I   borrow  from   Mr.  Youatt's 
work  on  sheep,  exhibits  the 

INTERNAL   APPEARANCE    OF   STOMACHS. 


a,  The  esophagus  or  gullet. 

b,  The  commencement  of  the  esophagean  canal,  slit  open,  with  muscular  pillars 

underneath. 

c,  c,  e,  The  rumen,  paunch  or  first  stomach,  slit  open. 

d,  The  reticnlum  or  honey-comb  —  slit  open. 

e,  The  maniplus  or  many-folds  —  slit  open. 
/,  The  abomasum — slit  open. 

g,  The  commencement  of  the  duodenum  or  first  intestine. 

A,  The  duodenum  slit  open. 

i,  m,  I,  Wands,  showing  course  of  esophagean  canal,  opening  of  stomachs,  etc. 


"  The  reticulum  or  honey-comb  is  composed  of  the  same 
number  of  coats   as  the  rumen,  fulfilling  similar  functions. 


296  STOMACHS    OF   THE    SHEEP. 

But  the  mucous  coat,  in  addition  to  minute  papillae,  is  covered 
with  elevations  arranged  in  pentagons  and  sexagons  of  differ- 
ent sizes,  somewhat  resembling  a  honey-comb,  except  that  the 
cells  are  larger  and  shallower. 

"  The  maniplus  has  the  same  four  coats.  Its  floor  is  a 
continuation  of  the  esophagean  canal.  From  its  roof  depend 
many  parallel  folds  of  the  cuticular  coat  —  here  thicker  and 
stronger  than  in  the  other  stomachs  —  reaching  nearly  to  its 
floor.  The  cuticle  is  covered  toward  the  edges  of  the  folds, 
with  hard,  bony  processes,  shaped  like  fangs,  or  cones  bent  in 
a  curvelinear  form,  and  pointing  toward  the  entrance  of  the 
stomach.  The  interior  of  each  fold  or  leaf  contains  muscles 
which  impart  to  it  the  power  of  a  peculiar  and  forcible 
motion.  There  are  forty-two  of  these  folds  in  the  maniplus 
of  the  sheep  —  occasionally  forty-eight.  They  do  not  all 
equally  nearly  approach  the  esophagean  canal,  but  are 
disposed  in  groups  of  six  —  one  of  the  central  ones  of  each 
nearly  reaching  the  canal  or  floor  of  the  stomach  —  the  others 
on  each  side  growing  shorter  and  shorter,  so  as  to  form  a 
series  of  irregular  re-entering  angles. 

"The  abomasum  is  the  digesting  stomach,  where  the 
gastric  juices  are  secreted,  and  where  the  pultaceous  food  is 
converted  into  chyme.  It  is  funnel-shaped,  and  its  lower 
extremity  connects  with  the  intestines  as  shown  in  the  cut. 
The  cuticular  lining  of  the  three  preceding  stomachs  is 
wanting  in  this.  The  mucous  coat  is  disposed  in  the  form  of 
nigcB  or  shallow  folds,  arranged  longitudinally  with  the 
direction  of  the  stomach,  and  from  this  membrane  the 
gastric  juices  are  secreted. 

"The  comparative  size  of  the  four  stomachs  will  be 
sufficiently  seen  in  the  preceding  illustration. 

"  Where  the  esophagus  enters  the  rumen,  it  terminates  in 
what  is  called  the  esophagean  canal,  a  continuation  of  the 
former  constituting  the  roof  of  the  latter.  The  bottom  or 
floor  of  this  canal  is  formed  of  divided  portions  or  folds  of  the 
upper  parts  of  the  rumen  and  reticulum — muscular  "pillars" 
or  "  lips,"  as  they  are  sometimes  denominated  —  which  may 
remain  closed  so  that  the  food  will  pass  over  them  into  the 
third  and  fourth  stomachs  —  or  they  may  open,  permitting 
the  food  to  fall  between  them,  as  through  a  trap-door,  into 
the  first  and  second  stomachs.  It  is  probable  that  the  opening 
of  these  lips,  as  food  passes  over  them,  depends  somewhat 
upon  a  mechanical  effect,  and  somewhat  upon  the  will  of  the 
animal.  Fluid  and  soft  pultaceous  food  fit  for  immediate 


STOMACHS    OP   THE    SHEEP.  297 

digestion  glide  over  them.  But  most  of  the  food  of  the*heep, 
like  that  of  other  ruminating  animals,  is  swallowed  with  little 
preparatory  mastication ;  and  these  untriturated  solids  drop 
down  through  the  first  opening  above  described  into  the 
rumen.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  animal  can,  at  will, 
also  cause  water  to  pass  through  the  opening  into  the  first 
stomach.  This  would  be  necessary  in  the  animal  economy, 
and  the  water  is  always  found  there. 

"  When  the  food  has  entered  the  rumen,  the  muscular 
action  of  that  viscus  compels  it  to  make  the  circuit  of  its 
different  compartments,  and,  in  time,  the  food  later  swallowed 
forces  it  on  and  up  to  near  the  opening  where  it  originally 
entered.  In  its  passage  it  is  macerated  by  a  solvent  alkaline 
fluid  secreted  by  the  mucous  coat.  The  papilla?  of  that  coat 
are  supposed  to  influence  the  mechanical  action  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach,  and,  perhaps,  to  a  certain  extent,  to 
aid  in  triturating  them.  The  food  performs  the  circuit  of  the 
stomach,  and  is  ready  for  re-mastication,  according  to 
Spallanzani,  in  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  hours.  By  a 
muscular  effort  of  the  stomach,  a  portion  of  it  is  then  thrown 
over  the  membraneous  valve  or  fold  which  guards  the 
opening  from  this  into  the  second  stomach.  The  reticulum 
contracts  upon  it,  forming  it  into  a  suitable  pellet  to  be 
returned  to  the  mouth,  and  also  covers  it  with  a  mucus 
secreted  in  this  stomach.  By  a  spasmodic  effort  (always 
perceptible  externally  when  the  sheep  or  cow  commences 
rumination)  the  pellet  is  forced  through  the  roof  of  the 
reticulum,  by  the  opening  before  described,  and  returned  to 
the  mouth  by  contractions  of  the  spiral  muscle  of  the 
esophagus  or  gullet,  for  mastication. 

"  This  explanation  of  the  functions  of  the  second  stomach 
is  not  accepted  by  all  the  physiologists  who  have  examined 
this  subject.  Some  contend  that  all  the  solider  portions 
of  the  food  are  returned  directly  from  the  rumen  for 
re-mastication ;  that  when  raised  to  the  floor  of  the  esopha- 
gean  canal,  the  hard  parts  are  carried  up  to  the  mouth  —  the 
more  pultaceous  ones  (but  still  not  sufficiently  pultaceous 
for  the  fourth  stomach)  passing  into  the  reticulum,  where 
they  are  again  macerated  —  the  fluid  squeezed  out  of  them 
by  a  contraction  of  the  stomach  and  allowed  to  pass  on  to  the 
fourth  stomach  —  and  then  the  drier  parts  raised,  like  those 
from  the  paunch,  for  re-mastication.  More  solid  and  indi- 
gestible substances  '  may  be  submitted  two  or  more  times  to 
the  process  of  rumination. '  " 
13* 


298  STOMACHS    OF   THE    SHEEP. 

"  Let  us  now  observe  the  course  pursued  by  the  food,  and 
the  process  to  which  it  is  submitted,  after  rumination.  It 
glides  over  the  trap-doors  which  open  into  the  first  and  second 
stomachs.  As  it  passes  over  ihe  floor  of  the  third,  or  the 
maniplus,  the  pendant  leaves  of  this  viscus,  armed  with  their 
beak-like  protuberances,  seize  the  advancing  mass,  and 
squeezing  out  the  fluid  and  the  more  finely  comminuted 
portions  of  the  food  which  escape  with  it,  commence  tritura- 
ting the  bulkier  fibrous  portions  between  their  folds.  Their 
bony  papillae  give  to  these  folds  something  of  the  mechanical 
action  of  rasps,  in  grinding  down  the  vegetable  fiber.  The 
food  being  now  reduced  to  an  entirely  pultaceous  state,  passes 
into  the  fourth  stomach,  or  abomasum,  where  it  is  acted  upon 
by  the  gastric  juice,  and  converted  into  chyme.  The  amount 
of  food  found  between  the  folds  of  the  mauiplus,  after  death, 
depends  upon  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  rumination.  It 
is  dry  and  hard,  compared  with  the  contents  of  the  other 
stomachs. 

"The  entrance  to  the  fourth  stomach — the  cardiac  opening 
—  is  closed  against  regurgitation  or  vomiting,  by  a  sort  of 
valve,  composed  of  a  portion  of  one  of  the  rugae,  before  alluded 
to,  which  line  the  interior  of  this  stomach.  The  pylorus  is 
also  closed  by  a  valve,  which  prevents  a  premature  passage 
of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  into  the  intestines. 

"  Before  the  duodenum  enters  into  (or  changes  its  name 
to)  the  jejunum,  and  about  18  inches  from  the  pylorus,  it  is 
perforated  by  the  biliary  duct  —  ductus  choledochus  —  which 
brings  the  bile  eliminated  by  the  liver,  from  the  gall-bladder, 
and  also  the  fluid  which  is  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  or  sweet- 
bread, which  last  is  introduced  into  the  biliary  duct  two 
inches  from  its  entrance  into  the  duodenum,  by  another  duct 
or  small  tube.  The  compound  fluid  thus  introduced-  into  the 
duodenum  exercises  various  important  offices  in  the  digestive 
and  assimilating  processes.  The  bile  is  supposed  to  aid  in  the 
separation  of  the  chyme  into  chyle  and  fecal  matter  —  or  the 
nutritive  parts  of  the  food  which  are  assimilated  into  blood, 
from  the  innutritions  parts  which  are  discharged  as  excrement. 
It  also  prevents  a  putrid  decomposition  of  the  vegetable 
contents  of  the  intestines,  and  serves  various  other  useful 
purposes. 

u  The  chyle  —  a  white  albuminous  fluid,  with  a  composi- 
tion differing  but  little  from  that  of  blood  —  is  taken  from  the 
intestines  by  a  multitude  of  minute  ducts  called  lacteals,  which 
traverse  the  mesentary,  constantly  uniting  as  they  advance, 


MODE    OF   ADMINISTERING    MEDICINE.  299 

so  as  to  form  larger  ducts.  These  enter  the  mesenteric  glands 
—  small  glandular  bodies  attached  to  the  mesentary  —  after 
the  passage  of  which  the  chyle  begins  to  change  its  color. 
The  lacteals  still  continue  to  unite  and  enlarge,  and  finally 
terminate  in  the  thoracic  duct.  In  this  the  chyle  is  mingled 
with  the  lymph  secreted  from  a  portion  of  the  lymphatics  — 
another  exceedingly  minute  system  of  absorbent  ducts,  which 
open  on  the  internal  and  external  surfaces  of  the  whole 
system.  From  the  thoracic  duct,  the  chyle  is  conveyed  to 
the  heart,  and  enters  into  circulation  as  blood." 

MODE  OF  INTRODUCING  MEDICINES  INTO  THE  STOMACHS 
OF  SHEEP. —  Owing  to  the  peculiar  arrangement  and  action 
of  the  stomachs  above  described,  solids,  and  even  fluids  if 
forced  down  the  throat  rapidly,  fall  on  the  pillars  or  lips  of  the 
esophagean  canal  with  enough  momentum  to  cause  them  to 
open,  so  that  the  swallowed  substance  falls  into  the  paunch : 
and  the  comparatively  insensible  walls  or  coatings  of  this 
stomach  are  scarcely  acted  upon,  to  any  sensible  degree,  by 
medicines,  when  they  are  administered  in  the  proper  and 
usual  quantities.  Consequently,  let  him  who  administers 
medicines  in  "  balls,"  or  in  thick,  heavy  forms,  or  pours  down 
fluid  ones  with  haste  and  violence  through  the  usual  horn, 
remember  that  he  is,  in  most  cases,  substantially  throwing 
away  his  medicine,  or  putting  it  where  its  effects  will  not  be 
felt  in  time  to  be  of  any  service  in  acute  cases.  The  reader 
is  requested  to  keep  these  facts  distinctly  in  recollection 
whenever  the  administration  of  remedies  is  spoken  of  in  this 
volume ;  for  there  can  be  no  possible  use  of  constantly 
repeating  the  caution. 

HOOVE. —  When  sheep  are  suddenly  turned  from  poor 
pastures  on  fresh  clover,  turnips,  or  other  unusually  succulent 
food,  and  allowed  to  fill  themselves  to  excess,  its  fermentation 
in  the  first  stomach  or  paunch  causes  an  elimination  of  gas, 
which  sometimes  distends  that  organ  almost  to  bursting.  It 
presses  against  the  diaphragm  (midriff)  so  that  the  lungs 
can  not  be  filled  with  air,  and  thereby  directly  produces 
suffocation  ;  or  the  blood  no  longer  circulates  through  the 
paunch,  and  is  determined  to  the  head,  producing  stupor  and 
death. 

It  is  most  egregious  folly  in  all  cases,  to  make  any  such 
sudden  change  in  feed.  If  dried-off  ewes,  for  example,  are  to 
be  put  on  rank  clover,  they  should,  at  first,  be  admitted  to  it 


300  HOOVE. 

for  only  two  or  three  hours  a  day — and  driven  in  at  mid-day, 
when  their  hunger  is  already,  to  a  good  extent,  satisfied. 
This  continued  two  or  three  days  entirely  prevents  the  danger 
of  hoove. 

When  sheep  are  discovered  to  be  "  hooven,"  they  should 
be  driven  gently  about  for  an  hour.  If  swollen  to  a  very 
dangerous  extent,  and  the  distress  and  oppression  are 
evidently  increasing,  they  must  be  relieved  by  mechanical 
means.  Those  provided  with  such  instruments  either  pass  a 
flexible  tube  with  a  rounded  perforated  end*  down  the  throat 
into  the  stomach,  through  which  the  pent-up  gas  escapes,  or 
they  plunge  a  trocar  (a  sharp  stylet  or  puncturing  instrument 
covered  with  a  canula  or  sheath,)  into  the  paunch  through  the 
left  flank.  The  trocar  is  withdrawn,  leaving  its  sheath  in  the 
wound,  which  keeps  the  openings  in  the  side  and  paunch 
opposite  to  each  other,  thus  allowing  a  freer  exit  to  the  gas, 
and  pi'eventing  the  other  matters  forced  along  with  it  from 
being  left  within  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  or  belly.  Any 
solid  or  semi-solid  matter  deposited  there  leads  to  inflamma- 
tion, and  ultimately,  if  in  any  considerable  quantity,  to  death. 
If  a  pocket  knife  is  used  instead  of  a  trocar,  the  above 
dangers  are  incurred ;  but  it  is  often  the  only  available 
instrument  at  hand,  and  generally  proves  a  safe  one.  The 
place  for  inserting  it  is  in  the  left  flank,  half  way  between  the 
haunch  and  ribs,  and  well  up  toward  the  back  bone. 

It  is  considered  safest  always  to  administer  a  purgative  — 
usually  one  or  two  ounces  of  epsom  salts  with  a  drachm  of 
powdered  ginger  —  after  a  severe  attack  of  hoove.  Mr. 
Spooner  prescribes: — "  Sulphate  of  magnesia  two  oz.,  ginger 
one  dr.,  gentian  two  dr.,  chloride  of  lime  half  dr.,  to  be  dis- 
solved in  a  pint  of  warm  water  or  gruel." 

If  gas  continues  to  be  developed,  Mr.  Youatt  recommends 
the  introduction  into  the  stomach  of  chloride  of  lime  —  a 
drachm  dissolved  in  a  gill  of  water  —  either  by  means  of  a 
horn  or  through  the  canula  of  the  trocar.  This  would  also 
be  an  admirable  remedy  to  administer  (down  the  throat)  in 
earlier  stages  of  the  disease  when  the  case  was  not  urgent,  or 
the  opening  of  the  paunch  yet  called  for.  Once  in  the  paunch 
it  would  produce  chemical  results  which  would  at  once  relieve 
the  parts  of  their  unnatural  distension.  Sulphuric  ether,  if 

»  Messrs.  Youatt  and  Spooner  mention  such  an  instrument  (having  a  stylet 
within  it  which  is  withdrawn  after  its  insertion  into  the  stomach.)  invented  by  Dr. 
Munro.  I  have  never  seen  it.  Both  writers  state  that  its  use  is  difficult  and  danger- 
ous in  nnpracticed  hands;  and  Mr.  Youatt  expresses  a  preference  for  the  trocar. 


POISONS.  301 

more  accessible,  would  also,  in  doses  of  two  drachms, 
condense  the  inflating  gases.  A  remedy  in  use  among 
farmers,  but  which.  I  have  never  seen  tried,  is  composed  of 
four  ounces  of  lard  and  a  pint  of  well-boiled  milk,  poured 
down  at  blood  heat  —  half  at  once,  and  the  remainder  soon 
after.  Others  administer  a  gill  of  urine  with  as  much  salt  as 
it  will  dissolve.*  Some  give  milk  with,  a  small  quantity  of 
soft  soap. 

POISONS. — The  effect  of  St.  John's-Wort  has  been  adverted 
to  at  page  269.  The  most  ordinary  poison  which  the  sheep 
partakes  of  in  the  regions  with  which  I  am  familiar,  is  the 
narrow-leaved  or  low  laurel,  (Kalmict  angustifolia.}  Sheep 
unused  to  this  plant,  and  driven  hungry  along  roadsides 
where  it  abounds,  consume  it  and  it  acts  as  a  virulent  poison 
on  them.  I  never  saw  a  sheep  laboring  under  its  effects. 
Mr.  Morrell  says:  —  "The  animal  appears  to  be  dull  and 
stupid,  swells  a  little,  and  is  constantly  gulping  a  greenish 
fluid  which  it  swallows  down ;  a  part  of  it  will  trickle  out  of 
its  mouth  and  discolor  its  lips."  He  adds : — "  In  the  early 
stages,  if  the  greenish  fluid  be  suffered  to  escape  from  the 
stomach,  the  animal  most  generally  recovers.  To  effect  this, 
gag  the  sheep,  which  may  be  done  in  this  manner :  Take  a 
stick  of  the  size  of  your  wrist  and  six  inches  long  —  place  it 
in  the  animal's  mouth  —  tie  a  string  to  one  end  of  it,  pass  it 
over  the  head  and  down  to  the  other  end,  and  there  make  it 
fast.  The  fluid  will  then  run  from  the  mouth  as  fast  as 
thrown  up  from  the  stomach.  In  addition  to  this,  give 
roasted  onions  and  sweetened  milk  freely." 

Mr.  Grennell,  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Report,  1860, 
states  that  the  broad-leaved  laurel,  "  calico  bush"  or  "  spoon- 
wood,"  (Kalmia  latifolia,}  is  equally  fatal,  and  that  "  a  far- 
mer in  Franklin  county,  Mass.,  lost  sixty  from  a  flock  of  two 
hundred,  in  the  fall  of  1860,  which  strayed  from  a  good  feed 
of  aftermath  grass,  into  an  adjoining  pasture,  to  eat  laurel  and 
die."  Several  plants  growing  in  our  Western  States  are 
thought  occasionally  to  poison  sheep,  but  I  do  not  know  their 
names  or  the  facts.  Mr.  Youatt  enumerates  among  the 
vegetable  sheep  poisons,  the  yew  (Taxus  baccata,)  and  the 
corn-crowfoot  (Ranunculus  arvensis.)  Mr.  Spooner  mentions 
that  soot,  when  applied  as  a  top-dressing  on  wheat  on  which 
sheep  were  soon  afterwards  turned,  acted  as  a  poison,  pro- 
ducing palsy  of  the  limbs  and  death. 

*  American  Agriculturist,  Vol.  3,  p.  66. 


302  POISONS. 

M.  Brugnone  very  successfully  administered  diluted  white 
wine  vinegar  to  sheep  poisoned  with  corn  -  crowfoot.  They 
were  all  comparatively  well  on  the  succeeding  day.  Mr. 
Spooner  quotes  Mr.  Coates,  of  Gainsborough,  England,  as 
saying  that  three  or  four  score  of  sheep  poisoned  by  soot — all 
those  which  had  not  become  paralyzed — recovered  on  the 
administration  *  of  cathartics  until  their  bowels  were  well 
acted  upon.  "They  were  then  fed  on  linseed  cake,  and 
ultimately  did  well."  It  is  a  popular  impression  in  this 
country,  how  well  founded  I  do  not  know,  that  a  strong 
decoction  of  the  white  ash,  made  by  boiling  the  bruised  twigs 
for  an  hour,  and  administered  from  half  a  gill  to  a  gill, 
repeating  the  dose  if  necessary,  is  a  sure  antidote  to  the 
effects  of  laurel,  if  taken  within  a  day  of  the  poisoning.* 
Drenches  of  milk  and  castor  oil  are  also  resorted  to  for  the 
same  object. 

Active  aperient  medicine,  so  administered  as  to  have  its 
full  effect,  (see  page  299,)  is  usually  given  to  poisoned  sheep. 
Mr.  Youatt  recommends,  with  obvious  propriety,  that  "  warm 
water  be  injected  into  the  paunch  by  means  of  Read's 
apparatus,  pumped  out  again,  and  this  repeated  until  either 
vomiting  is  excited  or  the  poison  has  been  rendered  harmless 
by  dilution."  There  is  a  simple  and  inexpensive  stomach 
pump  composed  of  a  hollow  ball  and  perforated  tube  of  India 
rubber  worked  by  alternately  squeezing  out  the  air  and  fluid 
from  the  ball,  for  sale  in  all  our  American  drug  stores,  which 
would  answer  for  the  above  purpose  admirably.  Every 
analogy  goes  to  show  that  cathartics  are  not  rapid  enough  in 
their  effects ;  and  they  do  not,  at  best,  avert  the  destructive 
results  of  virulent  poisons  which  have  been  received  into  the 
stomach  in  quantities  sufficient  to  produce  death. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  RUMEN  OR  PAUNCH. —  This  is 
unknown  in  the  United  States,  and  as  it  is  of  very  rare 
occurrence  even  in  England,  where  ovine  maladies  generally 
flourish  so  vigorously,  we  have  not  much  reason  to  fear  its 
future  advent  —  accordingly  space  will  not  be  consumed  here 
in  describing  it. 

OBSTRUCTION  OF  THE  MANIPLUS. —  It  would  appear  from 
Mr.  Youatt's  statements  (page  435,)  that  this  is  more  common 


*  Since  the  above  was  written  I  find  this  remedy  given  in  Allen's  "Domestic 
Animals,"  and  also  the  following:—"  Pour  a  gill  of  melted  lard  down  the  throat." 


INTESTINES   AND   MESENTAEY. 


303 


than  the  preceding  in  England,  and  is  a  very  serious  malady ; 
but  I  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  describe  it  here. 


THE     INTESTINES     AND     MESENTAEY. 

1.  The  duodenum. 

2.  The  jejunum. 

4.  The  coecuni,  being  the  anterior  prolongation  of  the  colon,  or  first  large  intes- 

tine. The  ileuni  opens  into  this  (on  the  back  side  as  presented  in  the  cut,) 
about  twelve  inches  from  its  extremity  —  the  opening  being  defended  by  a 
valve. 

5.  The  large  anterior  portion  of  the  colon,  retaining  its  size  (about  three  times 

that  of  the  smaller  intestines)  for  about  two  feet. 

6,  6.  The  colon  tending  toward  the  center. 

7,  7.  The  returning  convolutions  of  the  colon. 

8.  The  rectum  or  straight  gut,  communicating  with  the  anus. 

9,  9.  The  mesentary,  or  that  portion  of  the  peritoneum  which  retains  the  intes- 

tines in  their  places. 

10.  The  portion  of  the  mesentary  supporting  the  colon,  &c. 
The  united  length  of  these  intestines  is  upward  of  sixty  feet. 


304  DKOPSY,    OK    RED -WATER. 

ACUTE  DROPSY,  OR  RED  -WATER.  —  I  have  never  seen 
this  disease  in  our  country,  but  as  others  think  they  have,  I 
will  introduce  Mr.  Spooner's  description  of  it  and  of  the 
proper  mode  of  treating  it.  He  says : 

"  The  disease  understood  by  this  term  consists  of  effusion 
of  reddish-colored  serum  or  water  in  the  abdomen,  outside 
the  bowels,  and  is  the  effect  of  increased  action  of  the 
membrane  called  the  peritoneum,  which  forms  the  outer  coat 
of  the  bowels,  and  also  lines  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  is  the 
natural  office  of  this  membrane  to  secrete  a  watery  fluid,  in 
order  that  the  bowels  should  glide  readily  on  each  other, 
but  when  diseased  action  is  set  up  in  this  membrane  its 
secretion  becomes  excessive,  and  the  serous  portion  of  the 
blood,  mingled  with  some  of  the  red  portion,  becomes  effused 
in  this  cavity,  where  it  can  not  escape. 

"  The  disease  is  extremely  common  to  lambs,  both  during 
the  time  they  are  with  their  dams,  and  after  they  have  been 
weaned ;  and  in  them,  as  well  as  in  sheep,  it  is  very  fatal, 
destroying  the  latter  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  former  in 
less  time. 

"  The  nature  of  the  fluid  effused  is  similar  to  the  serum  or 
watery  portion  of  the  blood,  and  as  there  is  no  active  pain 
manifested,  we  are  not  justified  in  considering  that  it  is  the 
effect  of  inflammation,  but  one  rather  of  debility  of  the  vessels, 
and  the  existence  of  too  much  moisture  in  the  system.  It 
usually  attacks  both  sheep  and  lambs  when  feeding  on  turnips, 
and  particularly  when  there  is  a  hoar-frost,  and  the  sheep  are 
folded  on  them  during  the  night.  From  this  circumstance  it 
has  been  attributed  to  the  effect  of  lying  on  the  cold,  damp 
ground,  thus  chilling  the  system,  and  particularly  the  abdo- 
men. But  the  sheep  is  an  animal  covered  with  wool,  which 
can  readily  bear  this  exposure,  and  it  is  more  likely  to  be 
produced  by  an  excess  of  this  cold,  watery  frost  taken  into 
the  system,  though  perhaps  assisted  by  cold  lairs. 

"  This  view  of  the  matter,  too,  is  borne  out  by  the  fact, 
that  when  ewes  in  lamb  are  kept  too  much  or  too  long  on 
turnips,  they  often  cast  their  lambs,  which  are  found  dead  and 
water-bellied,  as  it  is  termed,  that  is,  the  abdomen  is  found 
distended  with  the  same  description  of  watery  fluid  as  we 
find  in  red-water.  Now,  in  this  case,  the  ewe  generally 
escapes  disease,  therefore  it  cannot  be  from  external  cold, 
but  from  the  nature  of  the  food;  so  likewise  it  is  most 
probable  that  such  is  the  case  with  red-water. 

"  The  symptoms  usually  observed  in  sheep,  are  refusal  to 


DROPSY,    OR   RED -WATER.  305 

feed  or  ruminate,  a  dull,  heavy  appearance,  often  attended  with 
giddiness,  a  staring  eye,  obstinate  costiveness,  and  sometimes 
the  head  is  carried  on  one  side.  In  lambs  these  symptoms 
are  less  decidedly  marked,  but  the  little  animal  lags  behind  its 
follows,  is  unwilling  to  move,  and  is  very  dull,  and  dies  in  a 
shorter  time  than  the  sheep.  Acute  pain  is  rarely  manifested 
in  either  sheep  or  lamb,  but  they  are  generally  carried  off  in 
a  short  time.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  for  the  shepherd  to 
leave  them  apparently  well  over  night,  and  to  find  one  or 
more  dead  in  the  morning. 

"The  treatment  of  the  cases  where  the  symptoms  have  fully 
manifested  themselves  will  generally  be  unsuccessful ;  but  in 
the  earliest  stages,  and  before  the  disease  has  actually  been 
manifested,  much  can  be  done.  The  sheep  should  be  removed 
to  a  drier  situation,  and  pasture  or  seeds  or  stubble  should  be 
substituted  for  the  turnips,  and  the  following  medicine 
administered: — Sulphate  of  magnesia,  one  pound;  gentian, 
powdered,  one  ounce ;  ginger,  dissolved  in  warm  water,  one 
ounce.  This  is  sufficient  for  eight  or  ten  sheep,  or  double  or 
treble  the  number  of  lambs. 

"Above  all,  it  is  desirable,  by  way  of  prevention,  to 
remove  the  healthy  sheep  to  some  dry  pasture,  giving  them 
good,  sound  hay,  a  little  corn  and  turnips,  only  in  moderation. 
Such,  however,  is  the  fatality  of  the  disease,  that  it  is  a 
question  whether  it  will  not  be  more  prudent  to  kill  the  sheep 
or  lambs  affected  ;  that  is,  if  they  are  in  any  condition  for  the 
table,  or  unless  from  any  particular  reason  it  is  very  desirable 
to  preserve  them.  Bleeding  in  these  cases  will  not  be 
prudent  unless  we  are  sure  that  inflammation  is  present, 
which  we  may  expect  if  active  pain  is  manifested. 

"  Mr.  W.  Greaves  advises  the  employment  of  tar  as  a 
preventive,  and  adduces  the  following  instance  of  its  success- 
ful employment.  He  says: — 'This  disease  is  very  prevalent  in 
this  part  of  Derbyshire,  and  a  friend  of  mine,  Mr.  Cooper,  of 
Ashford,  for  many  years  lost  one-fifth  of  his  hoggets  from 
red-water.  Three  or  four  years  ago  he  was  advised  to  bring 
them  into  a  yard,  and  give  each  hogget  a  tablespoonful  of 
common  tar  every  fortnight,  and  the  consequence  has  been, 
that  although  they  are  kept  in  every  respect  in  the  same  way 
as  before,  and  on  the  same  ground,  he  has  not  lost  one  sheep 
since  the  adoption  of  this  treatment.' 

"We  give  the  above  on  the  responsibility  of  the  advisers, 
in  case  any  farmers  may  be  desirous  of  trying  it,  but  we  can 
give  no  opinion  in  favor  of  its  efficacy." 


306  ENTERITIS DIARRHEA. 

ENTERITIS,  OR  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  COATS  OF  THE 
INTESTINES. — For  the  same  reasons  which  are  given  in  regard 
to  red-water,  I  present  Mr.  Youatt's  account  of  this  malady. 
He  says : 

"  By  this  term  is  understood  inflammation  of  most,  if  not 
all,  of  the  coats  of  the  intestines.  *  *  Its  early  symptoms 
are  not  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  colic :  possibly  it  is 
simple  colic  which  then  exists ;  but  the  disease  does  not  yield 
to  common  remedies.  The  symptoms  continue — they  become 
more  aggravated  —  the  animal  stamps  the  ground  with  his 
feet  —  he  scratches  it  —  he  attempts  to  strike  his  belly  with 
his  hind-legs  —  he  bends  his  knees  as  if  he  would  lie  down, 
but  he  dreads  the  pain  resulting  from  the  consentaneous 
action  of  the  muscles  of  the  belly,  and  their  pressure  on  the 
contents  of  the  belly ;  he  looks  round  at  his  sides  :  at  length 
he  comes  suddenly  down  —  he  rolls  on  his  back : —  he  main- 
tains this  position  for  some  seconds,  and  then  he  suddenly 
starts  and  scrambles  up  again.  The  muzzle,  the  horns,  and 
the  feet  are  cold.  The  pulse  is  quick  but  small  —  the  bowels 
are  usually  confined  —  obstinately  so  —  the  strength  of  the 
animal  rapidly  wastes  away.  Sometimes  there  is  a  determina- 
tion of  blood  to  the  head ;  the  animal  is  heedless  of  all  around 
it,  the' pupil  is  widely  dilated  —  and  to  this  delirium  occasion- 
ally supervenes.  *  *  * 

"  The  causes  belong  almost  exclusively  to  the  food  or  the 
locality.  Enteritis  is  produced  by  stimulating  and  acrimoni- 
ous nutriment  —  by  an  excess  of  that  which  is  healthful  —  by 
the  injudicious  administration  of  purgatives,  by  exposure  to 
cold,  and,  more  particularly,  by  the  mingled  influence  of  cold 
and  wet. 

"  The  treatment  is  sufficiently  plain  —  bleeding  according 
to  the  age  and  condition  of  the  animal,  and  the  urgency  of  the 
symptoms  —  purgatives  perseveringly  administered  until  the 
bowels  are  opened,  and  the  purging  being  afterwards  kept  up ; 
the  Epsom  salts  being  employed  to  produce  the  first  effect, 
and  sulphur  the  second.  The  food  to  consist  of  mashes  or 
gruel.  No  tonic  to  be  allowed  until  the  febrile  stage  is  passed, 
or  until  violent  diarrhea,  difficult  to  check,  has  succeeded 
to  the  constipation." 

DIARRHEA. — This  disease  is  often  more  properly  a  nervous 
than  a  febrile  one  —  in  the  former  case,  a  morbid  increase  of 
the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  bowels  —  in  the  latter,  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  mucous  coat  of  the  smaller  intestines.  But  for 


DIARRHEA.  307 

the  purpose  of  viewing  it  in  connection  with  dysentery,  to 
which  it  is  sometimes  closely  allied,  and  into  which  it  often 
runs  —  and  which  is  clearly  a  febrile  disease  —  it  will  be 
described  here. 

Common  diarrhea,  purging,  or  scours,  manifests  itself 
simply  by  the  copiousness  and  fluidity  of  the  evacuations  of 
dung.  It  is  brought  on  by  a  sudden  change  from  dry  feed  to 
green,  or  by  the  introduction  of  improper  substances  into  the 
stomach.  It  is  important  clearly  to  distinguish  this  disease 
from  dysentery.  In  diarrhea  there  is  no  apparent  general 
fever ;  the  appetite  remains  good ;  the  stools  are  thin  and 
watery,  but  unaccompanied  with  mucus  (slime)  and  blood ; 
the  odor  of  the  dung  is  far  less  offensive  than  in  dysentery ; 
the  general  condition  of  the  animal  is  but  little  changed. 

Confinement  to  dry  food  for  a  day  or  two,  and  a  gradual 
return  to  it,  oftentimes  suffice  for  its  cure.  I  have  rarely 
administered  anything  to  grown  sheep,  and  never  have  lost 
one  from  this  disease.  To  lambs,  especially  if  attacked  in  the 
fall,  the  disease  is  more  serious.  If  the  purging  is  severe, 
and  especially  if  any  mucus  (slime)  is  observed  with  the 
dung,  the  feculent  matter  should  be  removed  from  the  bowels 
by  a  gentle  cathartic  —  as  half  a  drachm  of  rhubarb,  or  an 
ounce  of  linseed-oil,  or  half  an  ounce  of  Epsom  salts  to  a  lamb. 
This  should  always  be  followed  by  an  astringent,  and  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  the  latter  will  serve  in  the  first  instance.  I 
generally  administer,  say,  ^  oz.  of  prepared  chalk  in  half  a 
pint  of  tepid  milk,  once  a  day  for  two  or  three  days,  at  the 
end  of  which,  and  frequently  after  the  first  dose,  the  purging 
will  ordinarily  have  abated  or  entirely  ceased.  * 

The  following  is  the  formula  of  the  English  "sheep's 
cordial,"  usually  prescribed  in  cases  of  diarrhea  by  the 
English  veterinarians,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  it  is  a  safe  and 
excellent  remedy  —  better  probably  than  simple  chalk  and 
milk  in  severe  cases:  Take  of  prepared  chalk  one  ounce, 
powdered  catechu  half  an  ounce,  powdered  ginger  two 
drachms,  and  powdered  opium  half  a  drachm ;  mix  them  with 
half  a  pint  of  peppermint  water  —  give  two  or  three  table- 
spoonfuls  morning  and  night  to  a  grown  sheep,  and  half 
that  quantity  to  a  lamb. 

Mi\  Spooner  says:  —  "If  the  cases  are  not  severe,  and 
entirely  confined  to  diarrhea,  astringents  alone  may  be  given ; 
but  if  any  mucus  is  perceived,  it  wSl  be  proper  to  administer 

*  This,  and  the  two  preceding  paragraphs,  are  quoted  with  the  alteration  of  a  few 
words  from  my  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South. 


308  DYSENTERY. 

a  laxative  in  the  first  instance.  *  *  *  In  cases  of  simple 
diarrhea  the  following  astringent  medicine  will  be  found  very 
useful: — Powdered  chalk,  one  ounce;  catechu,  four  drachms; 
ginger,  two  drachms;  opium,  half  drachm;  to  be  mixed 
carefully  with  half  a  pint  of  peppermint  water,  and  two  or 
three  tablespoonfuls  given  morning  and  night  to  a  sheep,  and 
half  this  quantity  to  a  lamb." 

The  following  remefly  for  diarrhea  appears  in  Mr.  Robert 
Smith's  prize  essay  On  the  Management  of  Sheep,  already 
several  times  cited.  He  says: — "When  the  disease  is 
observed  to  be  coming  on,  the  animals  should  be  instantly 
changed  to  older  or  dry  keeping.  If  the  disease  has  advanced 
unnoticed,  they  should  be  taken  up,  kept  warm,  supplied  with 
dry  food,  and  given  one  ounce  of  castor  oil  in  half  a  pint  of 
gruel ;  if  the  animal  has  much  pain  or  straining,  add  twenty 
drops  of  laudanum,  with  rather  more  gruel ;  if  the  discharge 
still  continues,  and  the  bowels  have  been  cleared  by  this  dose, 
it  will  be  proper  to  check  it  by  astringents.  The  following  is 
found  to  be  an  excellent  medicine  and  rarely  fails :  —  Four 
ounces  logwood,  one  drachm  of  the  extract  of  catechu,  and 
two  drachms  of  cinnamon,  mixed  with  three  pints  of  water, 
boiled  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  strain  it  off,  then  add  sixty 
drops  of  laudanum.  Give  a  pint  night  and  morning  as  long 
as  the  flux  continues." 

DYSENTEKY. —  Dysentery  is  caused  by  an  inflammation  of 
the  mucous  or  inner  coat  of  the  larger  intestines,  causing  a. 
preternatural  increase  in  their  secretions,  and  a  morbid  alter- 
ation in  the  character  of  those  secretions.  It  is  frequently 
consequent  on  that  form  of  diarrhea  which  is  caused  by  an 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  coat  of  the  smaller  intestines. 
The  inflammation  extends  throughout  the  whole  alimentary 
canal,  increases  in  virulence,  and  it  becomes  dysentery  —  a 
disease  frequently  dangerous  and  obstinate  in  its  character, 
but  fortunately  not  common  among  sheep  in  the  United 
States.  It  differs  from  diarrhea  in  several  readily  observed 
particulars.  There  is  evident  fever ;  the  appetite  is  capricious, 
ordinarily  very  feeble ;  the  stools  are  as  thin  or  even  thinner 
than  in  diarrhea,  but  much  more  slimy  and  sticky.  As  the 
erosion  of  the  intestines  advances,  the  dung  is  tinged  with 
blood;  its  odor  is  intolerably  offensive;  and  the  animal 
rapidly  wastes  away.  The  course  of  the  disease  extends 
from  a  few  days  to  several  weeks. 


DYSENTERY.  309 

I  have  seen  but  a  few  well-defined  cases  of  dysentery,  and 
in  the  half-dozen  instances  which  have  occurred  in  my  own 
flock,  I  have  usually  administered  a  couple  of  purges  of  linseed 
oil,  followed  by  chalk  and  milk  as  in  diarrhea  (only  doubling 
the  dose  of  chalk,)  and  a  few  drops  of  laudanum,  say  twenty 
or  thirty — with  ginger  and  gentian.  According  to  my 
recollection,  about  one-third  of  the  cases  have  proved  fatal, 
but  they  have  usually  been  old  and  feeble  sheep.  * 

Mr.  Youatt  prescribes  bleeding  as  indispensable,  cathar- 
tics, mashes,  gruel,  etc.  He  adds : 

"  Two  doses  of  physic  having  been  administered,  the 
practitioner  will  probably  have  recourse  to  astringents.  The 
sheep's  cordial  will  probably  supply  him  with  the  best ;  and 
to  this,  tonics  may  soon  begin  to  be  added  —  an  additional 
quantity  of  ginger  may  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
cordial,  and  gentian  powder  will  be  a  useful  auxiliary.  With 
this  —  as  an  excellent  stimulus  to  cause  the  sphincter  of  the 
anus  to  contract,  and  also  the  mouths  of  the  innumerable 
secretory  and  exhalent  vessels  which  open  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  intestine  —  a  half  grain  of  strychnine  may  be  com. 
bined.  Smaller  doses  should  be  given  for  three  or  four  days.'' 

The  following  remarks  on  dysentery  and  its  treatment, 
occur  in  Mr.  Robert  Smith's  prize  essay: — "If  the  disease 
has  only  just  commenced,  bleeding  is  highly  necessary ;  but 
if  advanced,  great  caution  should  be  observed,  and  the  pulse 
attended  to,  to  avoid  lowering  the  system  too  much.  To  effect 
a  cure,  a  reaction  or  perfect  change  in  the  system  is  neces- 
sary, and  may  be  best  produced  by  exciting  the  action  of  the 
skin.  To  effect  this  the  animal  should  be  immersed  in  a  tub 
of  hot  water  for  fifteen  minutes,  then  given  one  ounce  of 
castor  oil,  with  thirty  drops  of  laudanum,  in  a  little  gruel, 
taking  care  that  the  animal  be  kept  warm  by  wrapping,  and 
placed  in  a  warm  shed.  As  the  animal  recovers,  give  gruel 
freely,  with  a  more  moderate  dose  of  the  above ;  when  the 
appetite  returns,  give  mixed  feed,  such  as  hay  and  vegetables. 
During  this  disease  care  should  be  taken  not  to  pull  the 
wool,  as  it  frequently  falls  off  j  a  change  of  pasture,  and  not 

*  This  is  also  from  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South,  with  a  change  of  a  few  lines. 
Since  it  was  written,  I  have  had  sheep  die  where  one  symptom  of  the  fatal  malady 
was  dysentery.  I  have  ceased  to  administer  more  than  one  purge  —  and  the  sheep 
which  I  have  had  thus  affected  have  been  in  such  a  situation  that  I  dared  not  resort  to 
bleeding  —  notwithstanding  the  universal  tide  of  modern  authority  in  that  direction, 
when  it  can  be  resorted  to  in  an  early  stage  of  the  disease.  What  I  have  mentioned 
as  "  hunger-rot "  on  page  304,  frequently  closes  with  dysentery ;  but  the  poverty  and 
debility  have  reached  an  advanced  stage  before  that  sets  in,—  so  that  dysentery  can 
not  be  considered  the  primary  disease. 


310  CONSTIPATION COLIC    OR    STRETCHES. 

run  too  thick,  is  the  best  preventive.  I  have  also  found 
either  of  the  following  recipes  to  stay  its  ravages  when  given 
in  time ;  they  may  be  adopted,  where  parties  reject  the  hot 
water  plan,  with  equal  success : 

"No.  1.  Four  tablespoonfuls  of  common  salt,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  turpentine,  mixed  with  a  little  water,  and  repeated 
in  a  milder  dose  when  necessary. 

"  No.  2.  One  teaspoonful  of  laudanum,  one  tablespoonful 
either  gin  or  rum,  well  mixed  and  given ;  repeat  the  dose  if 
necessary,  or  in  a  milder  form. 

"  No.  3.  One  ounce  of  alum  in  half  a  pint  of  warm  water. 
The  above  three  recipes  will  also  stay  the  progress  of 

diarrhea  in  lambs." 
\ 

CONSTIPATION.  —  There  is  a  tendency  toward  this  in 
pregnant  ewes  confined  too  long  to  dry  feed,  as  has  been 
already  mentioned :  and  the  appropriate  remedy  is  to  give -a 
portion  of  green  feed,  (see  pages  221-228.)  Long  confinement 
to  dry  feed  produces  a  degree  of  costiveness  in  all  sheep,  which 
occasionally  results  in  colic.  The  preventive  is  the  same. 
The  constipation  of  young  lambs  and  its  proper  treatment 
have  been  sufficiently  described  at  page  149. 

COLIC,  OB  STRETCHES. — The  cause  of  this  disease  is  given 
under  preceding  head.  The  paroxysms  recur  at  intervals. 
During  the  continuance  of  them  the  sheep  stretches  itself 
incessantly  and  often  twists  about  its  head  as  if  in  .severe 
pain.  It  lies  down  and  rises  frequently.  The  termination 
is  occasionally  fatal,  unless  the  bowels  are  promptly  opened 
by  medicine.  An  ounce  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  warm 
water,  with  a  drachm  of  ginger  and  a  teaspoonful  of  the 
essence  of  peppermint  should  be  administered  to  a  sheep  and 
half  as  much  to  a  lamb.*  Three  very  excellent  practical 
shepherds  f  write  me —  the  first,  that  "  he  gives  Epsom  salts 
successfully  for  stretches:"  the  second,  that  he  "uses  a 
decoction  of  thorough  wort  or  boneset  —  that  warm  tea  is 
also  good :"  the  third,  that  he  "  employs  castor  oil,  and  if  the 
case  is  obstinate,  a  moderate  dose  of  aloes."  Attacks  of  this 
disease  become  habitual  to  some  sheep.  It  can  always  be  pre- 
vented by  giving  green  feed  daily,  or  even  once  or  twice  a  week. 

*  Some  farmers  lift  up  the  sheep  by  its  hind-legs  and  shake  it  a  little  in  that  posi- 
tion, under  the  belief  that  it  cures  stretches.  I  have  never  tried  it.  Others  "  drag 
it  about  by  the  hind-legs!" 

t  Nelson  A.  Saxton,  of  Vergennes,  Vermont ;  William  R.  Sanford,  of  Orwell, 
Vermont ;  and  Prosper  Elithorp,  of  Bridport,  Vermont. 


INFLAMMATION   OF  THE   BOWELS.  311 

BRAXY,  OK  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BOWELS.  —  Braxy  is 
one  of  the  formidable  diseases  of  Europe,  which  I  have  never 
met  with  in  this  country,  though  Mr.  Morrell  says  "it  is  not 
unusual  to  sheep  kept  in  the  latitude  of  ours."  It  is  stated  in 
the  Mountain  Shepherd's  Manual  that  it  chiefly  attacks 
lambs  about  the  end  of  autumn  and  beginning  of  winter, 
and  that  "  inflammation  of  the  bowels  seems  to  be  the 
most  common  form"  of  it.  "When  a  sheep  is  observed 
to  be  restless,  lying  down  and  rising  up  frequently,  and  at 
intervals  standing  with  its  head  down  and  its  back  raised, 
and  when  it  appears  to  move  with  pain,  inflammation  may  be 
suspected.  The  progress  of  the  inflammation  excites  great 
pain  ;  but  when  mortification  comes  on  the  pain  ceases ;  and 
thus  we  may  sometimes  account  for  an  animal  dying  suddenly 
when  apparently  well."  "  The  causes  of  the  inflammation," 
continues  the  same  authority,  "  may  be  various.  Costiveness 
from  eating  hard,  dry  food,  drinking  cold  water  while  the 
body  is  over-heated,  or  being  plunged  into  cold  water  while 
in  that  state,  or  suddenly  chilled  by  a  shower  of  rain  or  snow, 
may  bring  on  this  destructive  malady.  Feeding  on  strong, 
rank  grass  is  also  strongly  suspected  of  inducing  braxy.  *  * 
Along  with  long,  rank  leaves,  others  that  are  decayed  and 
rotten  or  flaccid,  may  be  eaten,  and  together  with  the  too 
large  quantity  of  such  rank  food,  which  young  sheep  are  apt 
to  swallow,  contribute  to  excite  fermentation ;  and  this,  from 
the  extrication  of  air,  swells  out  the  intestines,  preventing  due 
rumination ;  and  thus,  while  the  food  itself  is  vitiated  and 
does  mischief,  the  overstretching  of  the  bowels  causes 
inflammation."  Mr.  Spooner  thus  gives  the  post  mortem 
appearances  where  death  has  been  produced  by  inflammation 
of  the  bowels: — "After  death,  the  paunch  is  found  distended 
with  gas  and  with  food — the  latter  in  a  state  of  putrid  fermen- 
tation, and  necessarily  producing  the  former.  The  small 
intestines  are  in  a  gangrenous  state,  the  liver  is  partly 
decomposed,  and  filled  with  vitiated  bile;  but,  most  of  all, 
the  spleen  is  gorged  with  blood,  softened,  enlarged,  not 
unfrequ,ently  ruptured,  and  filled  with  tubercles  and  ulcers, 
with,  in  short,  various  appearances  of  disease,  but  all  of  them 
the  consequence  of  inflammation  principally  belonging  to  this 
gland,  and  of  the  most  serious  character." 

Mr.  Spooner  recommends  the  following  treatment :  —  "It 
should  be  met  with  very  active  treatment.  Bleeding  from 
the  neck  in  the  early  stage,  mild  aperients,  setons,  and  blisters 
appear  to  be  called  for ;  but  depletion  should  not  be  persisted 


312  WORMS  —  PINING. 

in  long,  and  should  be  followed  by  plenty  of  gruel,  vegetable 
tonics  and  good  nursing." 

WOEMS. —  Sheep,  says  Mr.  Spooner,  are  subject  in  rare 
instances,  in  England,  to  a  disease  arising  from  the  presence 
of  worms  in  the  intestines.  Mr.  Copeman,  of  Suffolk,  found 
fifty  lambs  laboring  under  violent  diarrhea.  On  examining 
some  which  died,  he  found  large  patches  of  inflammation  on 
the  villous  membrane  of  the  fourth  stomach.  "The  small 
intestines  contained  thousands  of  the  folded  tape-worm  (Toenia 
plicata^  and  about  twenty-five  of  the  large  round  worms, 
(Ascaris  lumbricoides]  with  a  large  quantity — several  ounces 
—  of  sand.  The  villous  membrane  was  in  a  stage  approaching 
to  mortification."  He  ordered  a  total  change  in  the  diet,  and 
the  following  medicine :  Castor  oil,  1  oz. ;  powdered  opium, 
3  grs. ;  starch,  1  oz. ;  boiling  water  sufficient  to  make  a 
draught.  Thin  starch  was  given  night  and  morning.  The 
lambs  improved.  After  administering  this  medicine,  for  four 
or  five  days,  a  stimulant  was  administered  to  destroy  the 
parasites :  linseed  oil,  2  oz. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  4  drachms. 
"  One  dose  only  was  given  to  some  of  them,  others  required 
two,  and  a  few  had  three  or  four  in  the  course  of  the  following 
month,  and  then  all  were  well."  I  never  heard  but  of  a 
single  alledged  case,  in  the  United  States,  of  worms  proving 
injurious  in  the  intestines  of  sheep. 

PINING. —  Under  this  name  Mr.  Spooner  describes  a  very 
destructive  malady  in  certain  districts  of  Scotland,  and 
particularly  on  the  Cheviot  Mountains.  Mr.  James  Hogg, 
the  "  Ettrick  Shepherd,"  lost  upward  of  nine  hundred  sheep 
by  its  ravages,  within  the  space  of  nine  years.  I  do  not  think 
this  peculiar  disease,  or  anything  analagous  to  it,  has  yet 
appeared  in  the  United  States,  but  as  the  limits  of  sheep 
breeding  are  rapidly  extending  to  fresh  regions,  embracing 
new  varieties  and  combinations  of  climate,  soil  and  verdure, 
it  may  be  erring  on  the  safe  side  to  include  it  in  this  catalogue 
of  maladies.  Sir.  Hogg  says: — "The  distemper  is  a  strange 
one ;  it  may  effect  a  whole  flock  at  once.  The  first  symptoms 
to  a  practiced  eye  are  lassitude  of  motion,  and  a  heaviness  about 
the  pupil  of  the  eye,  indicating  febrile  action.  On  attempting 
to  bleed  the  animal,  the  blood  is  thick  and  dark  colored,  and 
cannot  be  made  to  spring ;  and  when  dead  there  is  found  but 
little  blood  in  the  carcass,  and  even  the  ventricles  of  the  heart 
become  as  diy  and  pale  as  its  skin.  On  the  genuine  pining 
farms,  the  disease  is  more  fatal  in  dry  than  in  wet  seasons  ; 


PINING.  313 

and  most  so  at  that  season  when,  by  the  influence  of  the  sun, 
the  plants  are  less  juicy,  or  early  in  autumn,  when  the  grasses 
which  have  pushed  to  seed  become  less  succulent.  Conse- 
quently, June  and  September  are  the  most  deadly  months. 
If  ever  a  farmer  perceives  a  flock  on  such  a  farm,  having  a 
fl  ushed  appearance  of  more  than  ordinary  rapid  thriving,  he  is 
gone.  *  By  that  day  eight  days,  when  he  goes  out  to  look  at 
them  again,  he  will  find  them  all  lying,  hanging  their  ears, 
running  at  the  eyes,  and  looking  at  him  like  so  many  con- 
demned criminals.  As  the  disease  proceeds,  the  hair  of  the 
animal's  face  becomes  dry,  the  wool  assumes  a  bluish  cast,  and 
if  the  shepherd  has  not  the  means  of  changing  the  pasture,  all 
those  affected  will  fall  in  the  course  of  a  month." 

Pining  is  thought  to  proceed  "from  an  enervated  and 
costive  habit,  producible  by  want  of  proper  exercise  and 
eating  astringent  food."  "The  farms  most  liable  to  this 
disease  are  those  dry,  grassy  farms,  abounding  in  flats  and 
ridges  of  white  and  flying  bent.  *  *  The  lands  which  are 
now  most  subject  to  this  disease  were  once  in  the  same 
manner  liable  to  the  rot.  As  the  draining  of  the  sheep 
pastures  proceeded,  the  rot  gradually  became  extinct,  and  was 
ultimately  superseded  by  the  pining."  Mr.  Hogg  and  Mr. 
Laidlaw  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  primary  cause  of  the 
pining  of  sheep  was  the  extirpation  of  the  ground  moles  from 
their  ranges.  These,  by  throwing  up  the  fresh  earth  on  the 
surface,  preserved  the  soft,  succulent  herbage:  on  their 
disappearance,  it  became  coarse,  harsh  and  unpalatable,  f 
"  In  dripping  seasons,  shepherds,  by  strict  attention  in 
changing  the  sheep's  pasture  every  day,  may,  in  great 
measure,  prevent  its  ravages  ;  but  in  a  dry  one,  without 
infield  land  sown  with  succulent  grasses  or  limed,  it  is 
impossible  to  prevent  it." 

Mr.  Spooner,  after  recommending  the  preparation  of  more 
succulent  pasturage,  and  suggesting  the  culture  of  some  plants 
in  them  having  laxative  qualities,  such  as  the  purging  flax, 
adds  :  —  "  With  regard  to  medicine,  the  Epsom  and  Glauber 
salts  offer  themselves  as  the  most  suitable,  and  the  employ- 
ment of  common  salt  will  also  be  found  of  much  service.  " 

I  feel  constrained  to  say  that  the  explanation  above  given 
of  the  nature  and  causes  of  the  malady  termed  pining,  are 
wholly  unsatisfactory  to  my  mind. 


*  In  this  and  the  succeeding  sentences  I  think  we  may  snspect  a  little  poetic 
exaggeration  —  rather  a  habitual  tendency  in  the  mind  of  the  author  of  The  Queens' 
Wake. 

t  This  cause  for  so  general  a  result  appears  to  me  inadequate,  not  to  say  fanciful. 

14 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

DISEASES  OP  THE  OIKOULATOEY  AND  THE  EESPIEATOEY 
SYSTEM. 

THE     PULSE PLACE     AND     MODE     OP     BLEEDING FEVER 

INFLAMMATORY  FEVER MALIGNANT  INFLAMMATORY  FEVER 

TYPHUS       FEVER  CATARRH  MALIGNANT        EPIZOOTIC 

CATARRH PNEUMONIA,    OR    INFLAMMATION    OF   THE    LUNGS 

—  PLEURITIS    OR   PLEURISY CONSUMPTION. 

THE  Circulatory  System  consists  of  the  heart,  arteries 
and  veins.  It  does  not  enter  within  the  scope  of  this  work 
to  describe  their  functions  and  action. 

THE  PULSE. —  The  pulse  in  a  healthy,  full-grown  sheep 
beats  according  to  Gasparin  sixty-five,  according  to  Youatt 
about  seventy,  and  according  to  Hurtel  d'  Arboval  seventy- 
five  times  per  minute.  To  ascertain  the  number  of  pulsations, 
the  hand  is  placed  on  the  left  side  where  the  beatings  of  the 
heart  can  be  felt.  When  it  is  necessary  to  judge  of  the 
character  of  the  pulse,  it  is  felt  at  about  the  middle  of  the 
inside  of  the  thigh,  where  the  femoral  artery  passes  obliquely 
across  it. 

PLACE  AND  MODE  OF  BLEEDING. —  Bleeding  from  the  ears 
or  tail,  as  is  commonly  practiced,  rarely  extracts  a  quantity 
of  blood  sufficient  to  do  any  good  where  bleeding  is  indicated. 
To  bleed  from  the  eye-vein,  the  point  of  a  knife  is  usually 
inserted  near  the  lower  extremity  of  the  pouch  below  the 
eye,  pressed  down,  and  then  a  cut  made  inward  toward  the 
middle  of  the  face.  Daubenton  recommends  bleeding  from 
the  angular  or  cheek  vein  —  "  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cheek, 
at  the  _  spot  where  the  root  of  the  fourth  tooth  is  placed, 
which  is  the  thickest  part  of  the  cheek,  and  is  marked  on  the 
external  surface  of  the  bone  of  the  upper  jaw  by  a  tubercle, 
sufficiently  prominent  to  be  very  sensible  to  the  finger  when 


PLACE    AND    MODE    OF    BLEEDING.  315 

the  skin  of  the  cheek  is  touched.  This  tubercle  is  a  certain 
index  to  the  angular  vein  which  is  placed  below.  *  *  The 
shepherd  takes  the  sheep  between  his  legs ;  his  left  hand  more 
advanced  than  his  right,  which  he  places  under  the  head,  and 
grasps  the  under  jaw  near  to  the  hinder  extremity,  in  order 
to  press  the  angular  vein,  which  passes  in  that  place,  to  make 
it  swell ;  he  touches  the  right  cheek  at  the  spot  nearly 
equi-distant  from  the  eye  and  mouth,  and  there  finds  the 
tubercle  which  is  to  guide  him,  and  also  feels  the  angular  vein 
swelled  below  this  tubercle ;  he  then  makes  the  incision  from 
below  upward,  half  a  finger's  breadth  below  the  middle  of 
the  tubercle." 

When  the  vein  is  no  longer  pressed  upon,  the  bleeding 
will  ordinarily  cease.  If  not,  a  pin  may  be  passed  through 
the  lips  of  the  orifice,  and  a  lock  of  wool  tied  round  them. 

Mr.  Youatt  says  : — "  In  cases  of  rheumatism,  or  garget,  or 
local  inflammation  referable  to  the  hind -quarters,  it  may  some- 
times be  advisable  to  bleed  from  the  saphena  or  thigh  vein. 
The  assistance  of  another  person  is  required  here.  The  sheep 
must  be  laid  on  his  side,  on  a  table,  or  on  some  straw,  the 
thigh  from  which  it  is  intended  to  extract  the  blood  being 
undermost.  The  other  three  legs  must  then  be  tied  together, 
and  the  assistant  must  draw  out  and  firmly  hold  the  fourth, 
while  the  operator  cuts  away  the  hair  from  that  portion  of 
the  thigh  at  which  he  intends  to  operate.  A  person 
acquainted  with  the  anatomy  of  the  part  will  at  once  put  his 
finger  on  the  course  of  the  vein  on  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh, 
and  compress  it,  and  thus  cause  it  to  become  larger  below  the 
pressure ;  but  he  who  is  not  so  much  used  to  the  operation 
will  do  right  to  pass  a  ligature  (a  piece  of  coarse  tape  will 
constitute  the  best,)  round  the  hinder  part  of  the  thigh,  which 
will  render  the  vein  sufficiently  evident.  It  must  be  opened  and 
afterward  secured  in  the  same  manner  as  the  cheek  vein." 

But  for  thorough  bleeding,  the  jugular  vein  is  generally 
to  be  preferred.  The  sheep  should  be  firmly  held  by  the  head 
by  an  assistant,  and  the  body  confined  between  his  knees,  with 
its  rump  against  a  wall.  Some  of  the  wool  is  then  cut  away 
from  the  middle  of  the  neck  over  the  jugular  vein,  and  a 
ligature,  brought  in  contact  with  the  neck  by  opening  the 
wool,  is  tied  around  it  below  the  shorn  spot  near  the  shoulder. 
The  vein  will  soon  rise.  The  orifice  may  be  secured,  after 
bleeding,  as  described  in  the  first  of  the  preceding  methods. 

The  good  effects  of  bleeding  depend  almost  as  much  on 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  blood  is  abstracted,  as  on  the 


316  FEVER INFLAMMATORY  FEVER. 

amount  taken.  This  is  especially  true  in  acute  disorders. 
Blacklock  tersely  remarks :  —  "Either  bleed  rapidly  or  bleed 
not  at  all."  The  orifice  in  the  vein,  therefore,  should  be  of 
some  length,  and  I  need  not  inform  the  least  experienced 
practitioner  that  it  should  be  made  lengthwise  with  the  vein. 
A  lancet  is  by  far  the  best  implement,  and  even  a  sharp- 
pointed  pen -knife  is  preferable  to  the  bungling  fleam. 
Another  important  rule  in  bleeding  is  that,  when  indicated 
at  all,  it  should  always  be  resorted  to  as  riearly  as  possible  to 
the  commencement  of  the  malady. 

The  amount  of  blood  drawn  should  never  be  determined 
by  admeasurement,  but  by  constitutional  effect — the  lowering 
of  the  pulse,  and  indications  of  weakness.  In  urgent  cases,  as, 
for  example,  apoplexy  or  cerebral  inflammation,  it  would  be 
proper  to  bleed  until  the  sheep  staggers  or  falls.  The  amount 
of  blood  in  the  sheep  is  less,  in  comparison,  than  that  in  the 
horse  or  ox.  The  blood  of  the  horse  constitutes  about 
one-eighteenth  part  of  his  weight,  that  of  the  ox  at  least 
one-twentieth,  while  the  sheep,  in  ordinary  condition,  is  one- 
twenty-second.  For  this  reason,  we  should  be  more  cautious 
in  bleeding  the  latter,  especially  in  frequently  resorting  to  it. 
Otherwise  the  vital  powers  will  be  rapidly  and  fatally 
prostrated.  Many  a  sheep  is  destroyed  by  bleeding  freely  in 
disorders  not  requiring  it,  and  in  disorders  which  did  require 
it  at  the  commencement,  but  of  which  the  inflammatory  stage 


FEVER. —  Fever,  without  any  particular  local  disease,  is 
very  rare  in  the  United  States.  I  never  saw  a  case  which  I 
believed  came  strictly  within  this  class.  The  sheep  suffering 
from  it  is  without  appetite,  retreats  to  a  shady  place  and  lies 
on  the  ground,  pants  if  it  is  driven,  has  a  high  pulse,  a  clammy 
mouth,  a  dry,  hot  nose,  hot  feet,  red  eyes,  and  a  dull,  anxious 
countenance.  On  examination,  the  disease  has  not  yet 
fastened  upon  any  organ ;  it  is  simple  fever.  At  this  stage  it 
yields  readily  to  moderate  depletion  —  the  abstraction  of  a 
small  amount  of  blood  and  a  dose  of  cathartic  medicine. 

LVFLAMMATORY  FEVER. —  Mr.  Price,  an  English  writer  on 
Sheep  Grazing  and  Management,  gives  the  following  account 
of  this  disease : —  "  The  number  of  animals  that  die  of  this 


disorder  in  Romney  Marsh  is  truly  astonishing:  I  should 
suppose  nearly  four  in  a  hundred  yearly  in  some  soils  and 
situations,  and  at  peculiar  seasons,  although  every  precaution 


MALIGNANT   INFLAMMATORY   FEVER.  317 

in  stocking  is  taken  to  prevent  it ;  which  if  the  graziers  did 
not,  they  would  lose  half  their  flock  annually.  My  opinion  is 
that  the  soil  of  Romney  Marsh,  being  very  rich,  consequently 
the  clover  and  grasses  equally  so,  that  sheep  feeding  on  these 
rich  pastures  must  be  more  subject  to  inflammation  than  those 
fed  on  poorer  soils,  particularly  in  the  spring,  when  the  young 
shoots  of  the  grasses  and  natural  clover  are  full  of  juices : 
besides,  when  in  this  state  they  are  greedily  eaten  by  the 
animals,  which  often  proves  fatal,  particularly  after  a  warm 
day  or  two. 

"  On  opening  them  the  contents  of  the  abdomen  are  more 
or  less  inflamed,  and  some  parts  are  very  dark  colored,  and 
emit  a  very  offensive  smell.  Sometimes  the  heart  or  lungs 
appear  to  be  primarily  affected;  and  sometimes  the  liver, 
bowels,  and  stomach,  which  is  very  easily  perceived  by  the 
dark  and  livid  appearance  of  the  part.  It  is  said  that  bad- 
mouthed  sheep  never  die  of  this  disease,  because  they  can  not 
feed  on  short,  nutritious  grass,  but  on  coarse  long  herbage 
which  does  not  enrich  the  blood.  I  am  of  opinion  that  it  is 
an  inflammatory  disease,  and  that  the  only  remedy  is  large 
bleedings,  so  as  rapidly  to  lower  the  system." 

MALIGNANT  INFLAMMATORY  FEVER.  —  This  malady 
appears  occasionally  in  England,  but  is  common  as  a 
very  destructive  epizootic  in  France,  where  it  is  termed 
La  Maladie  de  Sologne.  It  prevails  in  low,  marshy  districts 
where  the  sheep  are  wintered  very  poorly,  folded  in  close, 
damp  stables,  and  turned  out  in  the  spring  to-  gorge  them- 
selves on  the  watery,  rapidly-growing  vegetation.  It  appears 
toward  the  close  of  spring,  and  rages  until  August.  Its  early 
symptoms  are,  says  Mr.  Youatt,  "suspension  of  rumination, 
loss  of  appetite,  dullness,  weeping  from  the  eye,  coldness  of 
the  ears,  alternate  shiverings  and  flashings  of  heat.  Soon 
afterward  the  mouth  and  the  breath  become  hot  —  the  eyes 
are  red  —  the  pulse  is  accelerated,  and  weak  and  irregular  — 
and  there  is  a  mucous  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  to  which 
succeeds  bloody  mucus,  and  then  a  mixture  of  purulent 
matter  and  blood.  By  degrees,  the  urine  becomes  bloody 
and  the  excrements  are  covered  with  grumous  blood  —  the 
head  and  legs  are  swelled  —  the  debility  is  extreme,  and  the 
animal  dies  in  the  course  of  eight  or  ten  days.  The  greater 
part  of  the  animals  attacked  by  this  disease  perish.  The 
sheep  in  the  finest  condition  die  soonest,  and  with  greatest 
certainty." 


318  TYPHUS  FEVEK CATARRH. 

Dry  food,  salt,  camphorated  drinks  and  vegetable  tonics, 
are  usually  administered.  Bleedings  are  sometimes  resorted 
to  in  the  very  earliest  stage  of  the  malady.  Tessier,  one  of 
the  ablest  agricultural  writers  of  France,  suggests  the  follow- 
ing modes  of  prevention : — "  To  keep  the  flock  more  in  the 
sheep  house  during  the  rainy  season ;  to  feed  better  the  ewes 
that  are  pregnant,  or  that  are  giving  suck;  never  to  milk 
the  ewes;*  not  to  turn  the  young  lambs  on  those  marshy 
situations  on  which  the  danger  of  being  infected  by  the  rot 
makes  them  afraid  to  place  the  mothers  ;  to  keep  salt  within 
the  reach  both  of  the  lambs  and  the  ewes ;  not  to  send  the 
sheep  to  the  field  when  the  weather  is  cold,  and  to  drive  them 
back  when  storms  threaten ;  not  to  shear  the  sheep  so  early 
as-  they  are  accustomed  to  perform  that  operation  ;  and  to 
endeavor  by  every  possible  means  to  drain  the  ponds  and 
marshes  with  which  that  [La  Sologne]  and  so  many  other 
districts  of  France  abounds."  f 

This  formidable  malady  has  never  yet  appeared  in  the 
United  States. 

TYPHUS  FEVER. —  Mr.  Youatt  expresses  the  opinion  that 
this  disease  often  destroys  thousands  of  sheep  in  Great  Britain, 
and  that  many  of  the  diseases  recognized  as  braxy  are  really 
of  this  class.  I  do  not  know  that  it  ever  occurs,  as  a  distinct 
or  idiopathic  malady,  in  the  United  States;  but  I  scarcely 
ever  saw  any  febrile  symptoms  attend  any  form  of  ovine 
disease  in  our  country  which  were  not,  or  did  not  Very  soon 
become  typhoid  in  their  character.  (See  page  262.)  English 
practitioners  recommend  "  the  lancet  and  Epsom  salts,"  at 
the  "  very  commencement "  of  the  disease.  In  any  stage  of 
any  malady  attended  by  the  characteristic  low  form  of  fever, 
where  I  have  seen  bleeding  and  purgative  medicines  both 
resorted  to,  to  any  serious  extent,  their  apparent  effect  has 
been  uniformly  to  accelerate  the  fatal  result. 

CATARRH. —  Catarrh  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  which  lines  the  nasal  passages  —  and  it  sometimes 
extends  to  the  larynx  and  pharynx.  In  the  first  instance  — 
where  the  lining  of  the  nasal  passages  is  alone  and  not  very 
violently  affected  —  it  is  merely  accompanied  by  an  increased 
discharge  of  mucus,  and  is  rarely  attended  with  much  danger. 

The  French,  in  many  districts,  milk  their  ewes  and  manufacture  the  milk  into 
i. 
t  Quoted  by  Youatt,  at  p.  481 


MALIGNANT   EPIZOOTIC    CATARRH.  319 

In  this  form  it  is  usually  termed  snuffles,  and  high-bred 
English  mutton  sheep,  in  this  country,  are  apt  to  manifest 
more  or  less  of  it,  after  every  sudden  change  of  weather. 
When  the  inflammation  extends  to  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
larynx  and  pharynx,  some  degree  of  fever  usually  super- 
venes, accompanied  by  cough,  and  some  loss  of  appetite.  At 
this  point  the  English  veterinarians  usually  recommend 
bleeding  and  purging.  Catarrh  rarely  attacks  the  American 
fine-wooled  sheep  with  sufficient  violence,  in  summer,  to 
require  the  exhibition  of  remedies.  I  early  found  that 
depletion,  in  catarrh,  in  our  severe  winter  months,  rapidly 
produced  that  fatal  prostration  from  which  it  is  next  to 
impossible  to  recover  the  sheep  —  entirely  impossible,  with- 
out bestowing  an  amount  of  time  and  care  on  it,  costing 
far  more  than  the  price  of  any  ordinary  sheep. 

The  best  course  is  to  prevent  the  disease  by  judicious 
precautions.  With  that  amount  of  attention  which  every 
prudent  flock-master  should  bestow  on  his  sheep,  the  hardy 
American  Merino  is  little  subject  to  it.  Good,  comfortable, 
but  well-ventilated  shelters,  constantly  accessible  to  the 
sheep  in  winter,  with  a  proper  supply  of  food  regularly  admin- 
istered, is  usually  a  sufficient  safeguard;  and  after  some 
years  of  experience,  during  which  I  have  tried  a  variety  of 
experiments  on  this  disease,  I  resort  to  no  other  remedies  — 
in  other  words,  I  do  nothing  for  those  occasional  cases  of 
ordinary  catarrh  which  arise  in  my  flock ;  and  they  never 
prove  fatal. 

MALIGNANT  EPIZOOTIC  CATARRH. — In  "Sheep  Husbandry 
in  the  South,"  from  which  the  preceding  paragraph  is  trans- 
ferred, I  give  an  extended  account  of  a  disease  which 
prevailed  with  destructive  violence  in  the  State  of  New  York 
in  the  winter  of  1846-47.  Some  flock-masters  lost  half, 
others  three-quarters,  and  a  few  seven-eighths  of  their  flocks. 
One  individual  within  a  few  miles  of  me  lost  five  hundred 
out  of  eight  hundred  —  another  nine  hundred  out  of  one 
thousand.  But  these  severe  losses  fell  mainly  on  the  holders 
of  the  delicate  Saxon  sheep,  and  perhaps,  generally,  on  those 
possessing  neither  the  best  accommodations,  nor  the  greatest 
degree  of  energy  and  skill. 

I  lost  about  fifty  sheep  by  the  disease.  Tip  to  February,  my 
sheep  remained  apparently  perfectly  sound,  and  they  were  in 
good  flesh.  Each  flock  had  excellent  shelters,  were  fed 
regularly,  etc.,  and  although  sheep  were  beginning  to  perish 


320  MALIGNANT   EPIZOOTIC   CATARRH. 

about  the  country,  my  uniform  previous  impunity  in  these 
"bad  winters"  led  me  to  entertain  no  apprehensions  of  the 
prevailing  epizootic.  About  the  first  of  February  my  sheep 
went  into  the  charge  of  a  new  man,  hired  upon  the  highest 
recommendations.  A  few  days  after  I  was  called  away  from 
home  for  a  week.  The  weather  during  my  absence  was,  a 
part  of  the  time,  very  severe.  The  sheep  house  occupied  by 
one  flock  containing  one  hundred  sheep,  was,  with  the 
exception  of  two  doors,  as  close  a  room  as  can  be  made  by 
nailing  on  the  wall-boards  vertically  and  without  lapping,  as 
is  common  on  our  Northern  barns.  One  of  the  doors  was 
always  left  open,  to  permit  the  free  ingress  and  egress  of 
the  sheep,  and  for  necessary  ventilation.  A  half  dozen  ewes, 
which  had  been  untimely  impregnated  by  a  neighbor's  ram, 
were  on  the  point  of  lambing,  and  it  being  safer  to  confine 
the  ewes  in  a  warm  room  over  night,  the  shepherd,  instead 
of  removing  them  to  such  a  room,  confined  the  whole  flock  in 
the  sheep  house  every  night,  and  rendered  it  warm  by  closing 
both  doors.  After  two  or  three  hours,  the  air  must  have 
become  excessively  impure.  On  entering  the  sheep  house,  on 
my  return,  I  was  at  once  struck  with  its  highly  offensive 
smell.  A  change,  too,  slight  but  ominous,  had  taken  place  in 
the  appearance  of  a  part  of  the  flock.  They  showed  no  signs 
of  violent  colds,  I  heard  no  coughing,  sneezing,  or  labored 
respiration  —  and  the  only  indication  of  catarrh  which  I 
noticed,  was  a  nasal  discharge,  by  a  few  sheep.  But  those 
having  this  nasal  discharge,  and  some  others,  looked  dull 
and  drooping ;  their  eyes  ran  a  little  — were  partially  closed, 
the  lachrymal  caruncle  and  lids  looked  pale  —  their  movements 
were  languid  —  and  the  shepherd  complained  that  they  did 
not  eat  quite  so  well  as  the  others.  The  pulse  was  nearly 
natural  —  though  I  thought  a  trifle  too  languid. 

Not  knowing  what  the  disease  was  —  and  fully  believing 
that  depletion  by  bleeding  or  physic  was  not  called  for,  I 
contented  myself  with  thoroughly  purifying  the  sheep  house — 
seeing  that  the  feeding,  etc.,*  was  managed  with  the  greatest 
regularity  —  and  closely  watching  the  further  symptoms  of 
disease  in  the  flock.  In  about  a  week,  the  above  described 
symptoms  were  evidently  aggravated,  and  there  had  been  a 
rapid  emaciation,  accompanied  with  debility,  in  the  sheep 
first  attacked.  The  countenance  was  exceedingly  dull  and 

*  They  had  been  fed  with  bright  hay  three  times  a  day  and  turnips.  As  those 
affected  did  not  eat  their  turnips  well,  I  commenced  feeding  some  oats  in  addition  to 
the  turnips.  I  believed  that  a  generous  diet  was  called  for  and  I  gave  it. 


MALIGNANT   EPIZOOTIC    CATARRH.  321 

drooping  —  the  eye  kept  more  than  half  closed  —  the 
caruncle,  lids,  etc.,  almost  bloodless  —  a  gummy,  yellow 
secretion  below  the  eye  —  thick  glutinous  mucus  adhering 
in  and  about  the  nostrils  —  appetite  feeble — pulse  languid  — 
and  the  muscular  energy  greatly  prostrated.  Nothing  un- 
usual was  yet  noticed  about  their  stools  or  urine. 

I  now  had  all  the  diseased  sheep  removed  from  the  flock, 
and  placed  in  rooms  the  temperature  of  which  could  easily  be 
regulated.  I  commenced  giving  slight  tonics  and  stimulants, 
such  as  gentian,  ginger,  etc.,  but  apparently  with  no  material 
effect.  They  rapidly  grew  weaker,  stumbled  and  fell  as  they 
walked,  and  soon  became  unable  to  rise.  The  appetite  grew 
feebler  —  the  mucus  at  the  nose,  in  some  instances  tinged 
with  dark  grumous  blood — the  respiration  oppressed,  and 
they  died  within  a  day  or  two  after  they  became  unable 
to  rise. 

I  proceeded  to  make  post  mortem  examinations  with  great 
care  and  deliberation  —  aided  by  Dr.  Frederick  Hyde,  now 
Professor  of  Anatomy  in  the  Geneva  Medical  College.  *  My 
minutes  of  those  examinations  have  already  been  partially 
published  in  "  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South ;"  and  they  are 
ouite  too  long  for  insertion  here. 

Laboring  very  strongly  under  the  impression  that  the  seat 
of  the  disease  would  be  found  in  the  lungs,  or  some  of  the 
abdominal  viscera,  no  examination  was  made,  in  the  first  six 
cases,  of  the  interior  organs  of  the  head  and  neck.  But 
failing  to  discover  any  sufficient  indications  of  primary  disease 
among  the  latter  to  account  for  the  results,  I,  in  the  next 
case,  examined  the  bronchial  tubes,  the  lower  portions  of 
the  windpipe,  esophagus,  &c.,  and  found  them  all  in  an 
apparently  healthy  condition.  Before  tracing  these  passages 
to  the  throat,  I  removed  the  upper  portion  of  the  skull  and 
carefully  examined  the  brain  and  its  investing  membranes. 
All  seemed  in  a  perfectly  normal  state.  I  then  made  a 
longitudinal  section  down  through  the  middle  part  of  the 
whole  head,  and  the  seat  and  character  of  the  fatal  malady 
stood  at  once  revealed.  The  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
whole  nasal  cavity,  highly  congested  and  thickened  through- 
out its  Avhole  extent,  betrayed  the  most  intense  inflammation. 
At  the  junction  of  the  cellular  ethmoid  bones  with  the  cribri- 


*  To  guard  against  any  misapprehensions  on  this  point,  I  may  be  permitted  to 
say  that  we  had  a  well  warmed  room  — all  the  proper  instruments  for  making  such  an 
examination  —  and  several  hours  were  usually  devoted  to  each  case. 
14* 


822  MALIGNANT    EPIZOOTIC    CATARBH. 

form  plate — in  the  ethmoidal  cells — slight  ulcers  were  forming 
on  the  membraneous  lining.  The  inflammation  also  extended 
to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  and  say  three  inches 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  esophagus.  Here  it  rather 
abruptly  terminated.  Fifteen  or  twenty  more  cases  were 
examined,  and  so  far  as  the  seat  and  character  of  the  disease 
of  the  mucous  membrane  was  concerned,  the  appearances 
were  uniform  in  every  instance. 

This  was  obviously  a  species  of  catarrh  —  though  the 
feverish  symptoms  which  ordinarily  accompany  a  severe 
attack  of  that  disease  were  wanting.  From  the  very  outset, 
and  in  every  case,  the  type  of  the  disease  was  typhoid  — 
sinking  —  and  rapidly  tending  to  fatal  prostration. 

I  was  anxious,  of  course,  to  reduce  the  local  inflammation 
of  the  membranes  lining  the  head,  but  felt  perfectly  satisfied 
there  was  too  much  debility  to  admit  of  depletory  treatment. 
Nevertheless,  to  make  myself  sure,  and  to  gratify  the  curiosity 
of  others,  I  bled  in  three  or  four  instances,  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  commencement  of  the  attack.  As  anticipated,  it 
evidently  hastened  the  fatal  termination.  Blisters  not  being 
regarded  as  available  under  all  the  circumstances,  I  blew  Scotch 
snuff  (through  paper  tubes)  up  the  nostrils  of  some  of  the 
sheep,  to  cause  the  removal,  by  sneezing,  of  the  mucus  which 
seriously  obstructed  respiration,  and  in  the  faint  hope  that  it 
might  produce  a  new  action,  by  which  an  increased  mucous 
secretion  would  be  excited  and  the  congested  membrane 
relieved.  This  was  the  only  local  treatment  resorted  to. 

The  next  step  was  to  fix  on  the  constitutional  treatment. 
The  liver  had  been  shown  to  be  in  a  torpid  state.  There  was 
a  functional  derangement  in  the  mesenteric  and  probably 
other  glands,  and  a  want  of  activity  in  the  general  secretory 
system.  What  medicine  would  stimulate  the  liver,  cause  it 
to  secrete  the  proper  quantity  as  well  as  quality  of  bile, 
change  the  morbid  action  of  the  glands  and  secretory  system, 
and  restore  activity  and  health  to  the  vital  functions  generally  ? 
In  my  judgment,  nothing  promised  so  well  as  mercury ;  and 
by  its  well  known  effect  on  the  entire  secretory  system,  it 
would  powerfully  tend  to  relieve  the  congested  membranes  of 
the  head.  The  proto- chloride  of  mercury  (calomel)  was 
supposed  to  possess  too  much  specific  gravity  to  reach  the 
fourth  stomach,  with  any  certainty,  administered  in  a  liquid  ; 
and  if  administered  as  a  ball  or  pill,  it  would  be  almost  sure 
not  to  reach  that  stomach.  The  dissolved  bi-chloride  of 
mercury  (corrosive  sublimate)  was  therefore  hit  upon.  One 


MALIGNANT   EPIZOOTIC   CATARRH.  323 

grain  was  dissolved  in  two  ounces  of  water,  and  one-half 
ounce  of  the  water  (or  one-eighth  of  a  grain  of  corrosive 
sublimate)  was  exhibited  in  a  day,  in  two  doses. 

As  constipation  existed  in  most  of  the  cases,  it  was 
thought  that  the  bowels  required  to  be  stimulated  into 
action,  and  slightly  evacuated  by  a  mild  laxative.  Having 
noticed  in  similar  cases  of  debility  and  torpor  of  the  intestinal 
canal,  that  purgation  is  often  followed  by  a  serious  diarrhea, 
difficult  to  correct,  and  leading  to  rapid  prostration,  and  there 
being  no  intestinal  irritation  to  suffer  additional  excitement,  I 
thought  that  rhubarb  —  from  its  well  known  tendency  to  give 
tone  to  the  bowels,  and  its  secondary  effect  as  a  mild  astrin- 
gent— was  particularly  indicated.  It  was  given  in  a  decoction 
— the  equivalent  of  ten  or  fifteen  grains  at  a  dose — accompa- 
nied with  ginger  and  gentian,  in  infusion.  To  a  portion  of 
the  sheep  I  administered  the  rhubarb  and  its  adjuvants  alone ; 
to  others  I  gave  the  bi-chloride  of  mercury  in  addition. 

Not  a  single  sheep  recovered  after  the  emaciation  and 
debility  had  proceeded  to  any  great  extent.  One  such  only 
lingered  along  until  shearing.  Its  wool  gradually  dropped 
off:  it  seemed  to  rally  a  little  once  or  twice  and  then  relapse ; 
and  it  perished  one  night  in  a  rain-storm.  In  the  generality 
of  instances  the  time  from  the  first  observed  symptoms  until 
death,  varied  from  ten  to  fifteen  days.  A  few  died  in  a 
shorter  time.  I  thought  that  the  treatment  produced  favor- 
able effects  in  some  instances  —  particularly  when  resorted  to 
at  the  commencement  of  the  disease.  At  all  events,  some  of 
the  sheep  recovered  under  the  treatment — particularly  under 
that  including  the  exhibition  of  the  bi-chloride  of  mercury — 
and  very  few,  if  any,  recovered  without  any  treatment. 
Candor  compels  me  to  say,  however,  that  the  results  of  the 
treatment  were  far  from  being  satisfactory  —  that  the  cases  of 
recovery  were  much  fewer  than  the  deaths.  I  have  merely 
stated  what  I  believe  to  be  the  facts  in  the  premises  ;  I  do  not 
feel  prepared  to  make  any  recommendations.  As  I  now  look 
back  on,  and  quote  from  my  records  written  seventeen  years 
ago,  I  feel  greatly  disposed  to  doubt  whether  more  recovered 
under  my  treatment  than  would  have  recovered  without  it. 
At  all  events,  I  prefer  that  view  of  the  case  should  be  taken, 
so  that  if  a  similar  epizootic  should  recur,  those  called  upon 
to  combat  it  will  start  without  any  misconceptions  derived 
from  me.  I  have  given  my  treatment  because  it  constitutes 
part  of  the  true  history  of  the  case ;  and  because  records  of 
failures  are  not  without  their  value. 


324  EPIZOOTIC  OP  1846-47. 

The  epizootic  gradually  abated  towards  spring,  and  my 
flock  regained  its  perfect  health.  Near  spring,  many  farmers 
found  what  seemed  to  them  an  unusual  number  of  "grubs"  in 
the  heads  of  their  sheep  which  died  of  the  prevailing  epizootic, 
and  therefore  they  attributed  the  disease  to  this  cause  —  and 
this  seemed  to  be  the  prevailing  popular  opinion.  In  some 
of  the  latest  cases  in  my  flock,  I  discovered  more  or  less 
grubs ;  and,  in  two  or  three  instances,  an  unusual  number. 
In  other  cases,  where  the  external  symptoms  and  the  post 
mortem  appearances  were  almost  identical,  no  grubs  were  to 
be  seen  —  convincing  proof  that  they  had  nothing  to  do  in 
originating  this  destructive  disease. 

The  whole  value  of  the  preceding  records,  in  connection 
with  the  omitted  post  mortem  examinations, — if  they  have 
any — is  in  enabling  us  to  determine  what  the  sheep  epizootic 
of  1846-47  was,  and  what  it  was  not.  I  am  not  prepared  to 
aver  that  it  was  identically  the  same  with  the  "distemper" 
which  used  to  sweep  off  from  twenty  to  forty  or  fifty  per 
cent,  of  carelessly  managed  flocks  as  often  as  once  in  five  or 
six  winters  —  and  which,  though  greatly  mitigated  in  the 
frequency  and  severity  of  its  visitations,  continues  to  destroy 
more  American  sheep  than  all  other  maladies  combined.  It 
is,  indeed,  the  only  malady  which  proves  mortal  on  a  large 
scale.  But,  except  that  the  "distemper"  of  the  "bad  winters*5 
sometimes  closes  with  dysentery,  I  never  saw  any  difference 
between  its  general  external  symptoms  and  that  of  the  epizo- 
otic of  1846-47.  If  their  identity  should  be  established,  it 
would  be  a  most  important  point  gained ;  for  then  we  should 
know  against  what  enemy  to  concentrate  our  efforts,  instead 
of  "  doctoring "  for  rot,  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  braxy, 
consumption,  grub  in  the  head,  etc.,  etc. —  each  of  which 
maladies  the  winter  "  distemper  "  of  this  .climate  has  often 
been  pronounced  to  be.  Unfortunately,  I  have  had  no 
opportunities  to  make  post  mortem  examinations  of  sheep 
dying  of  that  disease  since  1846—47.  Without  this,  all  other 
observations  are  uncertain  and  comparatively  valueless.  The 
farmer  who  finds  a  prevailing  and  mortal  disease  among  his 
sheep,  and  who  is  not  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  internal 
structures  and  appearances  of  the  animal  to  make  an  intelli- 
gent examination  of  them  after  death,  should  always  avail 
himself  of  the  services  of  a  well  educated  physician.*  How- 

*  I  never  knew  such  a  physician  who  disdained  to  bestow  his  skill,  on  proper 
occasion,  on  a  brute.  "  Where  Allah  hath  deigned  to  bestow  life,  and  a  sense  of  pain 
and  pleasure,"  said  Adonbec  el  Hakim,  "  it  were  sinful  pride  should  the  sage,  whom 
he  has  enlightened,  refuse  to  prolong  existence  or  assuage  agony." 


INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   LUNGS.  325 

ever  little  the  latter  may  be  acquainted  with  veterinary 
practice,  he  will  be  entirely  competent  to  decide,  in  a  great 
majority  of  cases,  what  organ  is  the  seat  of  a  mortal  malady:* 
and  it  will  be  far  safer  to  rely  on  his  general  directions, 
founded  on  established  principles  and  on  a  knowledge  of  the 
properties  of  remedial  agents,  than  to  make  experiments  at 
random,  or  what  is  equally  dangerous,  call  in  the  aid  of  an 
ignorant  quack. 

PNEUMONIA,  OR  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS.  —  Pneu- 
monia, or  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  is  not  a  common  disease 
in  the  Northern  States,  but  undoubted  cases  of  it  sometimes 
occur,  after  sheep  have  been  exposed  to  sudden  cold  — 
particularly  when  recently  shorn.  The  adhesions  occasionally 
witnessed  between  the  lungs  and  pleura  of  slaughtered  sheep, 
betray  the  former  existence  of  this  disease  —  though  in  many 
instances  it  was  so  slight  as  to  be  mistaken,  in  the  time  of  it,  for 
a  hard  cold.  The  sheep  laboring  under  pneumonia  is  dull, 
ceases  to  ruminate,  neglects  its  food,  drinks  frequently  and 
largely,  and  its  breathing  is  rapid  and  laborious.  The  eye  is 
clouded  —  the  nose  discharges  a  tenacious,  fetid  matter — the 
teeth  are  ground  frequently,  so  that  the  sound  is  audible  to 
some  distance.  The  pulse  is  at  first  hard  and  rapid — some- 
times intermittent;  but  before  death  it  becomes  weak.  During 
the  height  of  the  fever,  the  flanks  heave  violently.  There  is  a 
hard,  painful  cough  during  the  first  .  stages  of  the  disease. 
This  becomes  weaker,  and  seems  to  be  accompanied  with 
more  pain  as  death  approaches. 

After  death,  the  lungs  are  found  more  or  less  hepatized, 
i.  e.,  permanently  condensed,  and  engorged  with  blood,  so 
that  their  structure  resembles  that  of  the  hepar,  or  liver  — 
and  they  have  so  far  lost  their  integrity  that  they  are  torn 
asunder  by  the  slightest  force. 

It  may  be  well  in  this  place  to  remark  that  when  sheep 
die  from  any  cause  with  their  blood  in  them,  the  lungs  have  a 
dark  hepatized  appearance.  But  it  can  be  readily  decided 
whether  they  are  actually  hepatized  or  not,  by  compressing 

*  A  healthy  situation  of  the  lungs,  bronchial  tubes,  &c.,  would  at  once  show  the 
absence  of  pneumonia,  consumption,  bronchitis,  etc.  The  healthy  condition  of  the 
liver  would  show  the  absence  of  rot  — the  healthy  condition  of  the  intestines,  the 
absence  of  braxy,  etc.  Were  any  of  those  organs  found  diseased,  it  might  not  be  so 
easy  in  all  instances  to  decide  on  the  precise  character  of  the  malady, —  but  enough  at 
least  would  be  learned  to  furnish  a  guide  to  the  general  treatment  in  subsequent  cases; 
and  at  all  events,  to  avoid  exasperating  the  disease  by  entirely  improper  remedies.  It 
is  much  to  be  hoped  that  a  professional  body  of  educated  and  learned  veterinarians 
•will  soon  be  spread  throughout  our  country. 


326  BRONCHITIS  —  PLEURISY. 

the  windpipe,  so  that  air  can  not  escape  through  it,  and  then 
between  such  compression  and  the  body  of  the  lungs,  in  a 
closely  fitting  orifice,  insert  a  goose  quill  or  other  tube,  and 
continue  to  blow  until  the  lungs  are  inflated  so  far  as  they  can 
be.'  As  they  inflate  they  will  become  lighter  colored,  and 
plainly  manifest  their  cellular  structure.  If  any  portions  of 
them  can  not  be  inflated,  and  retain  their  dark,  liver-like 
consistency  and  color,  they  exhibit  hepatization  —  the  result 
of  high  inflammatory  action  —  and  a  state  utterly  incompati- 
ble, in  the  living  animal,  with  the  discharge  of  the  natural 
functions  of  the  lungs. 

With  the  treatment  of  pneumonia,  I  have  but  little 
personal  experience.  In  the  first  or  inflammatory  stages  of 
the  disease,  bleeding  and  aperients  are  clearly  called  for.  Mr, 
Spooner  recommends  "  early  and  copious  bleeding,  repeated, 
if  necessary,  in  a  few  hours  —  this  followed  by  aperient 
medicines,  such  as  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  which  may  be 
repeated  in  smaller  doses  if  the  bowels  are  not  sufficiently 
relaxed.  The  following  sedative  may  also  be  given  with 
gruel  twice  a  day : — nitrate  of  potash,  one  drachm ;  digitalis 
powdered,  one  scruple  ;  tartarized  antimony,  one  scruple." 

The  few  cases  I  have  seen  have  been  of  a  sub-acute  charac- 
ter, and  would  not  bear  treatment  so  decided.  Mr.  Youatt 
remarks: — "Depletion  maybe  of  inestimable  value  during  the 
continuance — the  short  continuance — of  the  febrile  state;  but 
excitation  like  this  will  soon  be  folloAved  by  corresponding 
exhaustion,  and  then  the  bleeding  and  the  purging  would  be 
murderous  expedients,  and  gentian,  ginger,  and  the  spirit  of 
nitrous  ether  will  afford  the  only  hope  of  cure." 

BRONCHITIS. —  It  would  be  difficult  to  suppose  that  where 
sheep  are  subject  to  pneumonia  they  would  not  also  be  subject 
to  bronchitis  —  which  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane which  lines  the  bronchial  tubes — the  air-passages  of  the 
lungs.  I  have  seen  no  cases,  however,  which  I  have  been 
able  to  identify  as  bronchitis,  and  have  examined  no  subjects, 
after  death,  which  exhibited  its  characteristic  lesions!  Its 
symptoms  are  those  of  an  ordinary  cold,  but  attended  with 
more  fever  and  a  tenderness  of  the  throat  and  belly  when 
pressed  upon.  Treatment :  Administer  salt  in  doses  from  1^ 
to  2  oz.,  with  6  or  8  oz.  of  lime-water,  given  in  some  other 
part  of  the  day.  This  is  Mr.  Youatt's  prescription. 

PLEURITIS  OR  PLEURISY. —  I  have  seen  no  instance  of  this 
disease.  Mr.  Spooner  says  of  it : — "  This  disease  consists  of 


CONSUMPTION.  327 

inflammation  of  the  pleura  or  membrane  lining  the  chest.  It 
is  produced  by  the  same  causes  as  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
with  which  it  may  be  accompanied,  and  particularly  by  any 
sudden  changes  that  may  chill  the  whole  system.  It  often 
occurs  from  this  cause  after  sheep  washing,  when  it  is  very 
common  to  find  a  few  sheep  failing  and  in  proportion  to  the 
want  of  care  exercised.  It  is  not  unusual,  in  examining  the 
bodies  of  sheep,  to  find  the  lungs  in  part  adhering  to  the  sides 
of  the  chest,  and  the  animal  thus  affected  generally  loses  flesh. 
This  adhesion  is  the  effect  of  pleurisy,  and  another  and  still 
more  dangerous  result  is  water  in  the  chest. 

"  The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  in  many  respects  like 
those  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  but  it  is  attended  occasion- 
ally by  severe  pain  and  by  a  variation  of  the  symptoms 
generally,  such  as  a  harder  and  more  defined  pulse  and  more 
warmth  of  the  body.  The  treatment  must  consist  of  active 
bleeding  in  the  first  instance ;  and  in  this  disease  the  sheep  can 
bear  blood-letting  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  most  diseases. 
The  bleeding  may  be  repeated  if  necessary,  setons  may  be 
inserted  in  the  brisket,  the  bowels  moderately  relaxed,  and  in 
other  respects  the  same  treatment  observed  as  advised  for 
inflamed  lungs." 

CONSUMPTION. —  This  has  never,  so  far  as  my  knowledge 
extends,  appeared  in  American  flocks.  Mr.  Youatt  thus 
describes  it:  —  "There  is  another  and  still  more  frequent  and 
equally  fatal  disease  of  the  lungs,  [with  acute  inflammation,] 
but  it  assumes  an  insidious  character,  and  is  not  recognized 
until  irreparable  mischief  is  effected,  viz.,  sub-acute,  or 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  leading  on  to  disor- 
ganization of  a  peculiar  character  —  tubercles  in  the  lungs, 
and  terminating  in  phthisis  [consumption.]  The  sheep  is 
observed  to  cough  —  he  feeds  well  and  he  is  in  tolerable 
condition  —  if  he  does  not  improve  quite  so  fast  as  his 
companions,  still  he  is  not  losing  ground,  and  the  farmer  takes 
little  or  no  notice  of  his  ailment.  *  *  *  He  is  driven  to 
the  market  and  he  is  slaughtered,  and  the  meat  looks  and 
sells  well ;  but  in  what  state  are  the  lungs  ?  Let  him  who  is 
in  the  habit  of  observing  the  plucks  of  the  sheep,  as  they  hang 
by  the  butcher's  door,  answer  the  question.  He  sees  plenty 
of  sound  lungs  from  oxen  —  he  sees  the  lungs  of  the  calf  in  a 
beautifully  healthy  state;  but  he  does  not  see  one  lung  in 
three  belonging  to  the  sheep  that  is  unscathed  by  disease  — 
whose  mottled  surface  does  not  betray  inflammation  of  the 


328  CONSUMPTION. 

investing  membranes,  and  in  the  substance  of  which  there  are 
not  numerous  minute  concretions  —  tubercles. 

"  Perhaps  these  lesions  quickly  follow  sub-acute  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs,  but  they  do  not  rapidly  increase  afterwards. 
Their  existence  produces  a  slight  cough  which  scarcely 
interferes  with  health.  *  *  *  But  what  is  the  case,  and 
that  not  unfrequently,  with  the  ram  and  the  ewe  when  they 
get  three  or  four  years  old?  The  cough  continues  —  it 
increases  —  a  pallidness  of  the  lips,  or  of  the  conjunctiva,  is 
observed  —  a  gradual  loss  of  flesh — an  occasional  or  constant 
diarrhea,  which  yields  for  a  while  to  proper  medicine,  but 
returns  again  and  again  until  it  wears  the  animal  away.  Of 
how  many  diseases  is  this  cough  and  gradual  wasting  the 
termination  ?  It  is  the  frequent  winding  up  of  turnsick  ;  it  is 
the  companion  and  child  of  rot. 

"  This  disease  is  especially  prevalent  in  low  and  moist 
pastures,  and  it  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  spring  and 
in  autumn,  and  when  the  weather  at  those  seasons  is  unusu- 
ally cold  and  changeable.  It  is  almost  useless  to  enter  into 
the  consideration  of  treatment.  It  would  consist  in  a  change 
to  dry  and  wholesome  and  somewhat  abundant  pasture  —  the 
placing  of  salt  within  the  reach  of  the  animal,  and,  if  he  was 
valued,  the  administration  of  the  hydriodate  of  potash,  in 
doses  of  three  gi*ains,  morning  and  night,  and  gradually 
increasing  the  dose  to  twelve  grains.  With  regard,  however, 
to  the  common  run  of  sheep — when  wasting  has  commenced, 
and  is  accompanied  by  cough  or  dysentery,  the  most  honest 
and  profitable  advice  which  the  surgeon  could  give  to  the 
farmer  would  be,  to  send  the  animal  to  the  butcher  while  the 
carcass  will  readily  sell." 

Some  American  writers  appear  to  think  they  have 
recognized  this  disease  among  the  sheep  of  our  country. 
Consumption  is  considered  distinctly  hereditary  in  almost  all 
domestic  animals. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

DISEASES  OP  THE  GEKEBATIVE  AND  UEINAET  OBGANS, 

ABORTION INVERSION    OP     THE    WOMB GARGET  —  PARTU- 
RIENT OR  PUERPERAL   FEVER CYSTITIS,  OR    INFLAMMATION 

OF   THE    BLADDER. 

A  PORTION  of  the  more  ordinary  diseases  of  the  generative 
system  have  been  described  in  the  Chapters  devoted  to  the 
treatment  of  sheep  during  the  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

ABORTION. —  Abortion  is  unusual  among  sheep  in  our 
country ;  and  when  it  occurs,  is  usually  produced  by  some 
violence,  such  as  the  hooking  of  a  cow,  the  kick  of  a  wanton 
colt,  the  heavy  sidewise  blow  inflicted  by  the  horns  of  a 
cross  ram  as  he  forces  his  way  impatiently  up  to  the  rack  or 
feeding-trough,  or  the  like.  Severe  running,  leaping,  or  the 
rough,  careless  handling  of  the  operator  for  hoof-rot,  some- 
times produces  it.  There  seems  to  be  an  occasional  ewe 
which  is  habitually  subject  to  it  from  some  unknown  cause. 
Mr.  Youatt  and  Mr.  Spooner  both  mention  that  it  is  thought 
sometimes  to  occur  in  England  in  consequence  of  eating  salt. 
The  constant  habit  of  feeding  salt  freely  at  all  periods  of 
the  year,  during  my  whole  life,  without,  so  far  as  could  be 
reasonably  judged,  producing  such  an  effect  in  a  single 
instance,  leads  one  wholly  to  discredit  this  hypothesis.  Mr. 
Spooner  says : — "  But  what  causes  it  more  than  anything  else 
is  the  unlimited  use  of  turnips  and  succulent  food."  I  have 
no  experience  in  the  "unlimited"  winter  feeding  of  any  green 
food ;  but  I  have  fed  breeding  ewes  about  a  pound  of  turnips 
per  head,  sometimes  a  trifle  more,  daily,  during  their  entire 
pregnancy  for  many  years ;  and  by  comparing  them  with 
flocks  about  me  restricted  to  dry  feed,  I  have  always  been 
satisfied  that  a  moderate  supply  of  green  feed  tended  decidedly 
to  prevent  abortion.* 

*  Mr.  Youatt  gives  another  singular  cause  of  abortion— "continued  Intercourse 
with  the  ram  after  the  period  of  gestation  has  considerably  advanced ;"  and  he  says : 


330  INVERSION    OF    WOMB GARGET. 

So  far  as  this  has  fallen  under  my  observation,  it  has 
occurred  oftenest  about  the  close  of  the  third  or  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  month  of  pregnancy.  I  have  never  known  it  to 
assume  that  semi-infectious  or  enzootical  character  which  it  oc- 
casionally takes  in  our  great  dairies  of  cow& — though,  as  a  matter 
of  precaution,  as  well  as  to  give  her  a  better  chance,  I  always 
prefer  to  have  the  ewe  that  has  miscarried,  drawn  from  the 
breeding  flock  and  put  in  "the  hospital."  The  aborted  lamb 
and  everything  that  comes  with  it  from  the  vagina,  is  also 
removed  from  the  sheep  yard.  The  lamb  is  almost  invariably 
dead  at  birth.  I  have  not  been  in  the  habit  of  administering 
any  medicine  to  the  ewe.  *  She  usually  becomes  poor  and 
weak  unless  nursed  with  great  care — her  wool  ceases  to  grow, 
and  is  very  apt  to  be  shed  off.  Sometimes  she  scarcely 
recovers  her  condition  during  the  ensuing  summer.  It  is  a 
very  great  injury  to  a  ewe  to  abort,  and  if  she  does  so  the 
second  time,  she  should  invariably  be  excluded  from  the 
breeding  flock. 

INVERSION  OF  THE  WOMB. —  This  has  been  sufficiently 
noticed  at  page  145  of  this  work. 

GARGET. —  This  has  also  been  noticed  at  page  157  under 
the  head  of  Inflamed  Udder.  In  high-fed  English  ewes  it 
assumes  a  more  acute  and  dangerous  form  than  is  there 
described.  Hard  kernels  or  tumors  form  in  the  udder.  The 
udder  itself  becomes  much  swollen,  with  great  heat  and 
tenderness.  An  ounce  or  two  of  Epsom  salts  with  a  drachm 
of  ginger,  should  be  administered.  If  matter  forms  in  any 
part  of  the  udder,  a  deep  incision  should  at  once  be  made,  the 
pus  squeezed  out,  the  parts  well  fomented,  and  if  any  offensive 
smell  proceeds  from  the  wound  it  should  be  bathed  or 
syringed  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  a  weak  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime,  until  it  assumes  a  healthy  action. 

In  the  place  of  the  iodine  ointment  recommended  by  me 
(at  page  158)  as  an  application  to  the  udder  from  the  earliest 

"  This  is  frequently  the  case  among  the  mountain  and;the  moor  sheep."  American 
sheep  are  more  modest !  I  will  not  undertake  to  say  such  a  thing  never  occurs,  but  I 
never  yet  saw  or  heard  of  one  of  our  sheep  taking  the  ram  after  the  beginning  of 
pregnancy,  though  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  allow  rams  to  run  with  '•  in- 
lambed  "  ewes  the  entire  winter. 

*  Mr.  Spooner  recommends  giving  Epsom  salts  ,*£  oz.,  tincture  of  opium  1  drachm, 
powdered  camphor  %  drachm,  with  nourishing  gruel :  the  two  latter  medicines  to  be 
repeated  the  next  day,  but  not  the  salts  unless  the  bowels  are  constipated.  Mr. 
Youatt  says,  "  if  the  foetus  has  been  long  dead  —  shown  by  the  fetid  smell  and  the 
vaginal  discharge  —  the  parts  should  be  washed  with  a  weak  solution  of  the  chloride 
of  lime ;  and  some  of  it  also  injected  into  the  womb." 


PARTURIEHT   FEVER.  331 

stage  of  the  disease,  Mr.  Spooner  recommends  camphor 
ointment,  (see  List  of  Medicines,)  and  Mr.  Youatt  one 
drachm  of  camphor  ointment,  one  drachm  of  mercurial 
ointment,  and  one  ounce  of  elder  ointment,  well  incor- 
porated together.  Both  also  rely  greatly  on  constant 
fomentation  with  hot  water,  without  the  ingredients  which  I 
mentioned  as  proper  to  mix  with  it.  (See  page  158.)  But 
those  ingredients  must  add  to  its  salutary  eifects. 

PARTURIENT  OR  PUERPERAL  FEVER. —  This  disease,  as 
already  remarked,  is  very  unusual  in  this  country,  and  is,  so 
far  as  I  have  learned,  confined  exclusively  to  English  sheep. 
I  have  never  seen  a  case  of  it.  I  shall  therefore  present  the 
following  account  of  its  symptoms  and  treatment  from  a 
Prize  Essay  on  the  subject,  prepared  for  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  England  by  Mr.  Isaac  Seaman.  He  says : 

"  Parturient  fever  may  be  defined  a  disease  of  low  inflam- 
matory character,  involving  more  or  less  extensively  the 
organs  of  reproduction,  digestion  and  respiration ;  the  brain 
and  spinal  marrow  are  also  involved.  There  is  generally  a 
greater  determination  of  blood  to  some  organs  than  to  others; 
mostly  the  uterus  is  first  and  principally  affected,  in  some  the 
bowels  and  lining  membrane  of  the  abdomen  (peritoneum,)  in 
others  the  lungs ;  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow  are  often  very 
much  affected.  It  shows  itself  generally  during  the  last  twenty 
days'  gestation,  and  within  the  first  six  days  after  parturition : 
the  average  duration  of  the  disease  is  from  seven  to  fourteen 
days  ;  some  die  in  two  days  while  others  linger  a  month. 

"  Causes. — Any  circumstance  or  agency  which  depresses 
the  power  of  the  system,  insufficient  or  improper  food,  close 
folding,  exposure  to  fatigue,  to  cold,  and  moisture,  may  be 
considered  causes  of  the  affection.  I  have  repeatedly  noticed, 
where  ewes  about  a  month  before  lambing  have  been  removed 
from  a  sufficiency  of  wholesome  food  to  other  possessing  less 
nutritive  qualities,  they  have  suffered  greatly  from  parturient 
fever.  The  practice  of  fattening  sheep  and  ewes  being  fed 
upon  the  same  piece  of  turnips,  (the  best  parts  of  which  are 
consumed  by  the  former,  whilst  the  roots  and  other  inferior 
parts  are  consumed  by  the  latter,)  ought  to  be  abandoned ; 
a  small  fold,  too  —  a  circumstance  so  essential  to  the  develop- 
ment of  fat  in  the  one,  whilst  highly  injurious  to  the  pregnant 
ewe,  to  whom  exercise  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for 
the  maintenance  of  health.  *  Moist  and  warm  seasons, 

*  I  have  italicised  these  words,  so  strongly  confirmatory  of  the  views  expressed 
in  the  closing  portion  of  Chapter  XIX— extending  from  page  221  to  228  of  this  volume. 


332  PARTURIENT   FEVER. 

vegetables  growing  luxuriantly,  and  the  non-supply  of  dry, 
farinaceous  food,  are  alike  productive  of  the  affection.  Fat 
condition  is  thought  to  be  a  grand  cause  of  the  disease.  I 
certainly  have  noticed  that  the  Sussex  Downs  (a  breed  most 
disposed  to  collect  fat,)  suffer  most ;  and,  as  I  before  stated,  a 
delicate  sheep ;  but  losses  have  been  sustained  from  the  fact 
that  the  breeder,  thinking  them  too  fat,  a  short  time  before 
the  full  period  of  gestation  lessens  the  supply  of  food,  which 
is  plentiful  and  nutritious,  and  substitutes  that  of  a  poorer 
nature.  ***  ****** 

"  Symptoms, — The  most  early  symptom  that  marks  the 
commencement  of  this  disease  —  first  the  ewe  suddenly  leaves 
her  food,  twitches  both  hind-legs  and  ears,  and  returns  again 
to  her  food;  during  the  next  two  or  three  days  she  eats  but 
little,  appears  dull  and  stupid ;  after  this  time  there  is  a 
degree  of  general  weakness,  loss  of  appetite  and  giddiness, 
and  a  discharge  of  dark  color  from  the  vagina ;  whilst  the 
flock  is  driven  from  fold  to  fold  the  affected  sheep  loiters 
behind  and  staggers  in  her  gait,  the  head  is  carried  downward, 
and  the  eyelids  partly  closed.  If  parturition  takes  place 
during  this  stage  of  the  disease,  and  the  animal  is  kept  warm 
and  carefully  nursed,  recovery  will  frequently  take  place  in 
two  or  three  days ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  no  relief  is  afforded, 
symptoms  of  a  typhoid  character  present  themselves ;  •  the 
animal  is  found  in  one  corner  of  the  fold,  the  head  down, 
and  extremely  uneasy,  the  body  is  frequently  struck  with  the 
hind  feet,  a  dark  colored  fetid  discharge  continues  to  flow 
from  the  vagina,  and  there  is  great  prostration  of  strength. 
A  pair  of  lambs  are  now  often  expelled  in  a  high  state  of 
putrefaction ;  and  the  ewe  down  and  unable  to  rise,  the  head  is 
crouching  upon  the  ground,  and  there  is  extreme  insensibility ; 
the  skin  may  be  punctured  and  the  finger  placed  under  the 
eyelids  without  giving  any  evidence  of  pain  ;  the  animal  now 
rapidly  sinks  and  dies,  often  in  three  or  four  days  from 
the  commencement  of  the  attack.  Ewes  that  recover  suffer 
afterward  for  some  time  great  weakness,  and  many  parts  of 
the  body  become  denuded  of  wool. 

"  Treatment. — The  ewe  immediately  noticed  ill  should  be 
removed  from  the  flock  to  a  warm  fold  apart  from  all  other 
sheep,  and  be  fed  with  oatmeal  gruel,  bruised  oats  and  cut 
hay,  with  a  little  linseed  cake.  If  in  two  or  three  days  the 
patient  continues  ill,  is  dull  and  weak,  a  dark  colored  fetid 
discharge  from  the  vagina,  and  apparently  uneasy,  an  attempt 
to  remove  the  lambs  should  be  made.  The  lambs  in  a  great 


PARTURIENT   FEVER.  333 

majority  of  cases  at  this  period  are  dead,  and  their  decompo- 
sition (that  is,  giving  off  putrid  matter,)  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
giddiness  and  stupor  in  the  ewe.  If  the  os  uteri  (the 
entrance  into  the  womb)  is  not  sufficiently  dilated  to  admit 
of  the  hand  of  the  operator,  the  vaginal  cavity  and  os  uteri 
should  be  smeared  every  three  hours  with  the  extract  of 
belladonna,  and  medicine  as  follows,  given :  —  Calomel  eight 
grains,  extract  hyoscyamus  one  drachm,  oatmeal  gruel  eight 
ounces  —  mix  and  give  "  two  tablespoonfuls  twice  a  day. 
Epsom  salts  two  ounces,  nitre  half  ounce,  carbonate  of  soda 
two  ounces,  water  one  pint  —  mix  and  give  two  wine-glass- 
fuls at  the  same  time  the  former  mixture  is  given.  Let  both 
mixtures  be  kept  in  separate  bottles,  and  well  shaken  before 
given.  The  bowels  being  operated  upon,  omit  both  foi-mer 
prescriptions,  and  give  the  following :  —  Nitre  half  ounce, 
carbonate  of  soda  one  ounce,  camphor  one  drachm,  water 
eight  ounces — a  wine-glassful  to  be  given  twice  a  day.  Feed 
the  ewe  principally  upon  gruel  and  milk,  or  linseed  porridge. 
Parturition  having  taken  place,  the  uterus  should  be  injected 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  a 
drachm  to  a  pint  of  water,  and  repeated  twice  a  day  whilst 
any  fetid  discharge  from  the  vagina  remains.  *  *  * 

'•'•Post  Mortem  Appearances. —  On  opening  the  body  of  an 
ewe  in  which  parturient  fever  has  existed,  and  has  been  the 
cause  of  death,  a  great  variety  of  appearances  are  presented. 
In  some  cases  a  degree  of  redness,  varying  from  clear 
vermillion  to  a  reddish  brown,  is  variously  disposed  over  the 
coats  of  the  intestines  and  lining  membrane  of  the  abdomen 
(peritoneum)  and  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  invariably 
containing  a  great  quantity  of  reddish  serum  (red -water.) 
The  liver  mottled,  its  structure  soft,  and  the  bile  appearing 
dark  and  viscid.  The  cavity  of  the  womb  containing  much 
dark  colored  putrid  matter,  emitting  a  most  horrible  stench, 
its  structure  soft  and  almost  black.  The  blood  in  the  heart 
and  large  blood  vessels  frequently  found  black,  would  not 
coagulate,  and  destitute  of  tenacity.  The  lungs  frequently 
found  gorged  with  a  reddish  serosity  [fluid]  and  of  a  deeply 
red  or  brown  color,  and  as  soft  as  pulp,  the  cavity  of  the 
chest  containing  much  red  serum.  Dark  colored  spots 
variously  disposed  over  the  surface  of  the  brain,  and  within 
the  sheath  of  the  spinal  marrow. 

'•'•Prevention. — The  most  important  feature  connected 
with  our  subject  is  the  prevention  of  the  disease,  for  it  most 
interests  the  breeder  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view.  I  would 


334  PARTURIENT   FEVER. 

recommend  as  most  important  during  the  last  five  or  six 
weeks'  gestation,  regular  and  nutritious  feeding,  regular 
exercise,  dry  and  extensive  folding.  If  turnips  be  the  article 
of  food,  let  there  be  given  in  addition  a  few  oats,  linseed 
cake,  with  hay  and  straw  chaff;  let  a  well  sheltered  and  dry 
fold  be  arranged  at  a  short  distance  from  where  the  ewes  are 
fed  during  the  day,  wherein  to  lodge  for  the  night;  the 
driving  to  and  from  these  folds  will  give  exercise  —  a  circum- 
stance tending  much  to  promote  health  in  the  pregnant  ewe;* 
if  the  system  of  heath  or  pasture  feeding  is  practiced,  night 
folding  is  then  equally  necessary.  The  night  fold  in  common 
use  —  that  formed  by  building  straw  and  stubble  walls,  with 
sheds  attached,  the  front  of  which  has  a  southern  aspect  — 
answers  admirably.  Further  explaining  the  comforts  of  the 
pregnant  ewe,  I  will  add  in  the  words  of  the  poet, 

"  First  with  assiduous  care  from  winter  keep, 
Well  foddered  in  the  stalls,  thy  tender  sheep: 
Then  spread  with  straw  the  bedding  of  thy  fold. 
With  fern  beneath,  to  'fend  the  bitter  cold." 

These  statements  scarcely  need  addition ;  but  as  there  is 
a  strong  probability  that  this  formidable  malady  will  become 
more  common  in  the  United  States  as  the  high  bred  English 
sheep,  and  English  systems  of  keeping  are  introduced,  I  will 
append  to  it  the  following  letter  addressed  to  me  by  Mr. 
Thome : 

"  THOBNDALE,  WASHINGTON  HOLLOW,  N.  Y.,  April  13,  1863. 

DEAR  SIR  : —  *  *  The  puerperal  fever  has  been  known 
in  this  neighborhood  since  I  first  came  here,  though  only  to  a 
limited  extent  during  the  last  two  seasons.f  *  *  *  The 
disease  more  generally  affects  middle  aged  ewes,  and  ewes 
producing  or  carrying  twins.  It  does  not  select  those  lowest 
in  flesh ;  hence  the  farmers,  as  a  class,  are  unwilling  to 
believe  that  feed  can  remedy  it.  It  generally  shows  itself 
from  four  or  five  to  ten  days  before  lambing.  The  symptoms 
you  will  find  fully  described  in  Seaman's  Essay,  in  Vol.  XV, 
of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society.  The 
treatment  which  my  shepherd  has  followed,  and  with  good 
success  —  saving  sixteen  out  of  twenty,  sick  in  1859 — has 
been  to  separate  the  sick  ewe  at  once  from  the  flock  and  give 
a  dose  of  2  ozs.  Epsom  salts,  2  to  3  ozs.  molasses,  1  drachm 
of  nitre,  mixed  with  a  pint  of  warm  linseed  gruel.  The 

*  I  placed  these  words  in  italics,— and  also  the  words  "  regular  exercise  "  above. 

t  Mr.  Thome's  statements  of  his  losses,  which  here  follow,  have  already  been 
mentioned  at  page  69. 


PARTURIENT   FEVER.  335 

object  is  to  open  the  bowels,  and  should  the  above  not  operate 
in  eight  or  ten  hours,  it  should  be  repeated.  After  that,  the 
nitre  and  molasses  are  given  night  and  morning  in  an 
ordinary  quart  bottle  of  gruel  until  there  is  an  abatement  of 
the  fever,  when  the  nitre  is  discontinued.  Frequently,  in  fact 
generally,  after  they  have  been  down  three  or  four  days  —  if 
they  live  so  long — the  brown  discharge  which  has  been 
noticed  passing  from  the  vagina  becomes  putrid,  showing 
that  the  foetus  is  dead.  In  such  cases  a  small  quantity  of 
belladona — applied  dry  on  the  end  of  the  finger  —  is  applied 
to  the  mouth  of  the  womb  every  hour  until  it  is  sufficiently 
relaxed  to  allow  of  the  removal  of  the  decaying  mass.  After 
that  has  been  done,  the  womb  is  thoroughly  syringed  with 
warm  water,  to  which  milk  is  sometimes  added"  The  ewes' 
position  is  made  as  comfortable  as  possible,  and  always 
changed  once  or  twice  a  day.  Where  the  ewe  brings  forth 
her  young  alive  she  recovers  more  rapidly.  The  remedies 
and  treatment,  as  you  will  see,  are  perfectly  simple  and 
easily  tried  by  any  flock  owner.  The  great  secret  of  success 
with  it,  as  with  a  large  majority  of  diseases,  I  believe  is  good 
nursing.  *  *  *  Since  my  flock  have  received  a  small 
quantity  of  grain,  say  half  a  pint  per  head  daily,  before 
lambing,*  they  have  been  quite  free  from  any  signs  of  that 
trouble.  As  an  illustration  that  a  small  quantity  of  feed  is  a 
preventive,  a  flock  belonging  to  one  of  my  friends  was 
divided,  upon  going  into  winter  quarters,  into  two  lots, — one 
of  sixty  old  ewes,  the  other  of  thirty  two-year-olds.  The 
former  received  a  very  small  quantity  of  corn  daily  —  the 
latter  only  hay.  His  losses  from  the  former  lot  was  two  — 
from  the  latter  fourteen  head;  though  the  younger  ones 
generally  escaped.  *  *  * 

Yours  faithfully,  SAM'L  THORNE." 

While  an  over -fleshy,  plethoric  condition  is  obviously 
improper  for  breeding  ewes,  there  is  not  a  particle  of  doubt 
that  both  Mr.  Seaman  and  Mr.  Thome  are  correct  in  the 
position  —  not  only  as  respects  the  attack  of  parturient  fever, 
but  all  other  maladies  and  difficulties  connected  with  parturi- 
tion—  that  ewes  should  not  be  suffered  to  fall  off  seriously  in 
flesh  during  the  period  of  gestation.  Even  if  the  ewe  enters 
that  period  in  too  high  condition,  it  is  safer  to  keep  her  there 
than  it  is  to  reduce  her.  It  would  be  better,  if  we  could  have 

*  In  a  subsequent  letter  Mr.  Thorne  says: — "I  commence  with  a  small  quantity 
of  grain  eight  weeks  before  lambing,  which  is  soon  increased  to  half  a  pint  each." 


336  PARTURIENT    FEVER. 

things  exactly  according  to  our  wishes,  to  have  the  ewe  enter 
the  term  of  gestation  in  moderate  order,  and  then  gain  a  little 

—  almost  imperceptibly — to  the  time  of  lambing.     But  let 
me  not  be  mistaken.     This  is  no  time  to  fatten  or  to  stimulate 

—  no  time  to  over-feed,  as  many  do,  on  the  wholly  unfounded 
hypothesis  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  foetus. 
On  this  last  point  let  me  corroborate  my  opinions  by  much 
more    authoritative    ones.     The  well    known    Dr.   Dewees, 
speaking  of  pregnant  human  females,  says : 

"  Errors  in  diet  are  almost  constantly  committed  during 
pregnancy,  than  which  few  things  are  more  mischievous. 
We  have  already  adverted  to  the  tending  of  the  system  to 
plethora,  during  this  condition  of  the  female :  on  this  account 
it  can  not  fail  to  be  injurious  to  overcharge,  or  to  overstimu- 
late  the  stomach.  No  one  circumstance  has  contributed  so 
certainly  to  fix  this  error,  as  the  vulgar  speculation  on  this 
subject ;  namely,  the  necessity  the  female  is  under  to  prepare 
nourishment  for  two  beings,  at  one  and  the  same  time  ;  that 
is,  for  herself  and  the  child  within  her.  It  is,  therefore, 
constantly  recommended,  to  eat  and  drink  heartily ;  and  this 
she  often  does,  until  the  system  is  goaded  to  fever ;  and  some- 
times to  more  sudden  and  greater  evils,  as  convulsions  or 
apoplexy."  * 

Mr.  Youatt  says : — "  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  breed- 
ers that,  because  the  ewe  is  with  lamb,  an  additional  quantity 
of  food,  of  more  nutritive  food,  should  be  allowed ;  nothing 
can  be  more  erroneous  or  dangerous  both  to  the  mother  and 
the  offspring.  There  will  be  too  many  causes  of  inflammation 
ready  to  act,  and  to  act  powerfully,  during  the  time  of  going 
.  with  lamb,  to  prevent  the  least  approach  to  excess  of  food."  f 

According  to  eminent  British  medical  writers,  like  Dr. 
Hey,  Dr.  Gordon,  Dr.  Joseph  Clarke,  Dr.  John  Clarke,  etc., 
puerperal  fever  in  the  human  subject  often  assumes  an 
epidemic  and  highly  destructive  character  in  Europe,  and 
particularly  in  England.  According  to  Dr.  Dewees,  it  is 
very  rare  in  the  United  States.J 

The  history  of  the  disease  thus  far  seems  to  run  parallel 
between  human  and  ovine  subjects,  in  this  country  and 
Europe.  It  would  seem  that  it  assumed  an  epizootic,  or 
rather  enzootic  character  in  Mr.  Thome's  neighborhood. 

*  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  Females,  by  William  P.  Dewees,  M.  D.,  late  Profes- 
sor of  Midwifery  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  &c.,  &c.,  1840. 
t  Touatt  on  Sheep,  p.  497.    He  repeats  these  views  again  and  again. 
%  Dewees  on  the  Diseases  of  Females,  p.  380. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BLADDER.          337 

Those  desirous  of  reading  a  more  elaborate  'paper  on 
this  subject  than  that  of  Sir.  Seaman,  the  important  parts 
of  which  I  have  quoted,  will  find  it  in  a  "Prize  Report"  by 
Mr.  W.  C.  Sibbald,  in  XII  Volume  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  1851,  (page  554.) 

CYSTITIS,  OB  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BLADDEK. —  Mr. 
Spooner  says: — "Inflammation  of  the  bladder  is  a  rather 
rare  disease  with  sheep,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to  such  as  are 
kept  on  artificial  food,  such  as  oil-cake,  beans,  &c.,  though 
clover  that  has  been  mown,  it  is  said,  will  produce  it.  There 
are  more  losses  from  this  cause  than  farmers  are  aware,  it 
being  generally  this  disease  when  a  sheep  is  said  to  drop  with 
water.  It  is  mostly  confined  to  the  male  sex,  and  principally 
to  rams,  and  such  as  are  highly  fed.  The  state  of  the  bladder 
appears  to  be  that  of  fullness,  which  shows  its  neck  is  involved 
in  inflammation,  and  thus  becomes  contracted  and  loses  the 
cavity.  In  horses,  cystitis  is  generally  attended  with  constant 
staling,  the  bladder  being  so  irritable  as  scarcely  to  retain  a 
drop  of  urine.  In  sheep  there  is  the  same  predisposition  to 
stale,  but  an  incapability  of  performing  the  act."  Mr. 
Dickens  abstracted  three  pints  of  blood  from  the  neck  of  a 
"highly  fed  tup,"  laboring  under  this  disease,  which  produced 
fainting.  "He  soon  rallied,  and  an  oleagenous  draught, 
accompanied  by  an  opiate,  was  given  twice  during  the  day. 
Toward  night  he  appeared  much  better,  ate  a  little,  and  was 
seen  to  void  some  very  highly  colored  urine.  His  medicine 
acted  well  during  the  night,  but  on  the  next  day  his  straining 
came  on  at  times.  He  again  bled  him  from  the  other  side  of 
his  neck  to  the  amount  of  two  pints.  From  this  time  he 
continued  mending." 
15 


CHAPTER    XXVH. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN. 

THE     SCAB  —  ERYSIPELATOTTS     SCAB WILD    FIRE    AND    IGNIS 

SACER OTHER   CUTANEOUS   ERUPTIONS  SMALL   POX,    OR 

VARIOLA    OVINA. 

THE  SCAB. —  The  scab  is  a  cutaneous  disease,  analogous 
to  the  mange  in  horses  and  the  itch  in  men.  It  is  caused  and 
propagated  by  a  minute  insect,  the  acarus.  M.  Walz,  a 
German  veterinarian,  who  has  thrown  great  light  on  the 
habits  of  these  parasites,  says : 

"If  one  or  more  female  acari  are  placed  on  the  wool  of  a 
sound  sheep,  they  quickly  travel  to  the  root  of  it,  and  bury 
themselves  in  the  skin,  the  place  at  which  they  penetrated 
being  scarcely  visible,  or  only  distinguished  by  a  minute  red 
point.  On  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day  a  little  swelling  may  be 
detected  with  the  finger,  and  the  skin  changes  its  color,  and 
has  a  greenish  blue  tint.  The  pustule  is  now  rapidly  formed, 
and  about  the  sixteenth  day  breaks,  and  the  mothers  again 
appear,  with  their  little  ones  attached  to  their  feet,  and 
covered  by  a  portion  of  the  shell  of  the  egg  from  which  they 
have  just  escaped.  These  little  ones  immediately  set  to  work 
and  penetrate  the  neighboring  skin,  and  bury  themselves 
beneath  it,  and  find  their  proper  nourishment,  and  grow  and 
propagate,  until  the  poor  animal  has  myriads  of  them  to  prey 
on  him,  and  it  is  not  wonderful  that  he  should  speedily  sink. 
Some  of  the  male  acari  were  placed  on  the  sound  skin  of  a 
sheep,  and  they,  too,  burrowed  their  way  and  disappeared  for 
awhile,  and  the  pustule  in  due  time  arose,  but  the  itching 
and  the  scab  soon  disappeared  without  the  employment  of 
any  remedy." 

The  figures  on  the  next  page  are  copied  from  JVI.  Walz's 
work. 

The  female  acarus  brings  forth  from  eight  to  fifteen  young 
at  a  litter. 


THE    SCAB. 


339 


THE    ACARTTS   WHICH    CAUSES    SCAB. 

The  central  figure  represents  the  acari  of  their  natural  size  on  a  white  ground. 
The  left  hand  figure  represents  the  male  on  its  back,  magnified  to  366  times  the 
natural  size.  The  right  figure  represents  the  female  seen  by  the  same  magnifying 
power.  The  heads  or  suckers  of  both  point  upward,  between  the  inner  pair  of  legs. 
The  less  have  trumpet-like  appendices.  Hairs  are  seen  on  them  to  which  the  young 
ones  adhere  when  they  first  escape  from  the  pustule. 

The  scab  is  thought  often  to  be  produced  spontaneously,  in 
England,  by  mismanagement  of  various  kinds,  such  as  "  bad 
keep,  starvation,  hasty  driving,  dogging,  and  exposure  after- 
ward to  cold  and  wet ;"  and  it  spreads  rapidly  by  contagion. 
It  is  very  prevalent  there,  and  annually  causes  an  immense 
loss  in  the  wool  and  flesh  of  the  British  flocks.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  comparatively  little  known,  and  so  far  as  I  am 
able  to  learn,  never  originates  spontaneously.  It  is  a  singular 
fact  that  short- wooled  sheep,  like  the  Merino,  are  much  less 
subject  to  its  attacks,  and  this  is  probably  one  reason  for  its 
little  comparative  prevalence  in  the  United  States.  Mr. 
Youatt  observes : 

"The  old  and  unhealthy  sheep  are  first  attacked,  and 
long- wooled  sheep  in  preference  to  the  short;  a  healthy, 
short -wooled  sheep  will  long  bid  defiance  to  the  contagion, 
or  probably  escape  it  altogether." 

It  spreads  from  individual  to  individual,  and  from  flock  to 
flock,  not  only  by  means  of  direct  contact,  but  by  the  acari 
left  on  posts,  stones,  and  other  substances  against  which 
diseased  sheep  have  rubbed  themselves.  Healthy  sheep  are 
therefore  liable  to  contract  the  malady  if  turned  on  pastures 
previously  occupied  by  scabby  sheep,  though  some  considera- 
ble time  may  have  elapsed  since  the  departure  of  the  latter. 


340  THE    SCAB. 

The  sheep  laboring  under  the  scab  is  exceedingly  restless. 
It  rubs  itself  with  violence  against  trees,  stones,  fences,  &c. 
It  scratches  itself  with  its  feet,  and  bites  its  sores  and  tears 
off  its  wool  with  its  teeth.  As  the  pustules  are  broken,  their 
matter  escapes,  and  forms  scabs  covering  red,  inflamed  sores. 
The  sores  constantly  extend,  increasing  the  misery  of  the 
tortured  animal.  If  unrelieved,  it  pines  away  and  soon 
perishes. 

I  have  never  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  post- 
mortem appearances.  Mr.  Youatt  says  : 

"  The  post-mortem  appearances  are  very  uncertain  and 
inconclusive.  There  is  generally  chronic  inflammation  of  the 
intestines,  with  the  presence  of  a  great  number  of  worms. 
The  liver  is  occasionally  schirrous,  and  the  spleen  enlarged; 
and  there  are  frequently  serous  effusions  in  the  belly,  and 
sometimes  in  the  chest.  There  has  been  evident  sympathy 
between  the  digestive  and  the  cutaneous  sjstems." 

Twenty-seven  years  since,  I  purchased  one  hundred  and  fifty 
fine-wooled  sheep  just  driven  into  the  county  from  a  consider- 
able distance.  I  placed  them  on  a  farm  then  owned  by  me, 
in  another  town,  and  did  not  see  them  for  about  three  weeks. 
One  of  my  men  then  reported  to  me  that  the  sheep  were  amiss 
—  that  they  were  shedding  off  their  wool  —  that  sore  spots 
were  beginning  to  show  on  them — and  that  they  rubbed  them- 
selves against  the  fence-corners,  &c.  Though  I  had  never 
seen  the  scab,  I  took  it  for  granted  that  this  was  the  disease. 
No  time  was  to  be  lost,  as  I  had  seven  hundred  other  sheep 
on  the  farm  —  though  fortunately,  thus  far,  the  new  comers 
had  been  kept  entirely  separate  from  them.  Barely  looking 
into  Mr.  Livingston's  work  for  a  remedy,  I  provided  myself 
with  an  ample  supply  of  tobacco  and  set  out.  The  sheep  had 
been  shorn,  and  their  backs  were  covered  with  scabs  and 
sores.  They  evidently  had  the  scab.  I  had  a  large  potash 
kettle  sunk  partly  in  the  ground  as  an  extempore  vat,  and  an 
unweighed  quantity  of  tobacco  put  to  boiling  in  several  other 
kettles.  The  only  care  was  to  have  enough  of  the  decoction, 
as  it  was  rapidly  wasted,  and  to  have  it  strong  enough.  A 
little  spirits  of  turpentine  was  occasionally  thrown  on  the 
decoction,  say  to  every  third  or  fourth  sheep  dipped.  It  was 
necessary  to  use  it  sparingly,  as,  not  mixing  with  the  fluid 
and  floating  on  the  surface,  too  much  of  it  otherwise  came  in 
contact  with  the  sheep.  Not  attending  to  this  at  first,  two 
or  three  of  the  sheep  were  thrown  into  great  agony,  and 
appeared  to  be  on  the  point  of  dying.  I  had  each  sheep 


THE    SCAB.  341 

caught  and  its  scabs  scoured  off,  by  two  men  who  rubbed 
them  with  stiff  shoe-brushes,  dipped  in  a  suds  of  tobacco- 
water  and  soft  soap.  The  two  men  then  dipped  the  sheep  all 
over  in  the  large  kettle  of  tobacco-water,  rubbing  and  knead- 
ing the  sore  spots  with  their  hands  while  immersed  in  the 
fluid.  The  decoction  was  so  strong  that  many  of  the  sheep 
appeared  to  be  sickened  either  by  immersion  or  by  its  fumes ; 
and  one  of  the  men  who  dipped,  though  a  tobacco-chewer, 
vomited,  and  became  so  sick  that  his  place  had  to  be  supplied 
by  another. 

The  effect  on  the  sheep  was  almost  magical.  The  sores 
rapidly  healed,  the  sheep  gained  in  condition,  the  new  wool 
immediately  started,  and  I  never  had  a  more  perfectly  healthy 
flock  on  my  farm.  Though  administered  with  little  reference 
to  economy,  the  remedy  was  a  decisive  one.  With  a  vat  like 
figure  on  page  187,  this  would  not  necessarily  be  a  very 
expensive  method,  with  sheep  recently  sheared.  But  the 
assaults  of  the  scab  usually  come  on  in  the  spring  before 
shearing  time,  and  it  would  require  an  immense  quantity  of 
tobacco  decoction  to  dip  sheep  with  their  fleeces  on,  however 
carefully  it  might  be  pressed  out. 

The  following  is  the  remedy  recommended  by  Chancellor 
Livingston: — "First,  I  separate  the  sheep  (for  it  is  very 
infectious ;)  I  then  cut  off  the  wool  as  far  as  the  skin  feels 
hard  to  the  finger ;  the  scab  is  then  washed  with  soap-suds, 
and  rubbed  hard  with  a  shoe-brush,  so  as  to  cleanse  and  break 
the  scab.  I  always  keep  for  this  use  a  decoction  of  tobacco, 
to  which  I  add  one-third  by  measure  of  the  lye  of  wood  ashes, 
as  much  hog's  lard  as  will  be  dissolved  by  the  lye,  a  small 
quantity  of  tar  from  the  tar-bucket,  which  contains  grease, 
and  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole  by  measure  of  spirits  of 
turpentine.  This  liquor  is  rubbed  upon  the  part  infected,  and 
spread  to  a  little  distance  round  it,  in  three  washings,  with  an 
interval  of  three  days  each.  I  have  never  failed  in  this  way 
to  effect  a  cure  when  the  disorder  was  only  partial.  *  *  * 
I  can  not  say  whether  it  would  cure  a  sheep  infected  so  as  to 
lose  half  its  fleece."  * 

The  following  remedies  are  much  used  in  Great  Britain : 

No.  1. —  Dip  the  sheep  in  an  infusion  of  arsenic,  in  the 
proportion  of  half  a  pound  of  arsenic  to  twelve  gallons  of 
water.  The  sheep  should  previously  be  washed  in  soap  and 
water.  The  infusion  must  not  be  permitted  to  enter  the 
mouth  or  nostrils. 

*  Livingston's  Essay.    Appendix,  p.  177. 


342.  THE    SCAB. 

No.  2. — Take  common  mercurial  ointment,  for  bad  cases, 
rub  it  down  with  th-ree  times  its  weight  of  lard — for  ordinary 
cases,  five  times  its  weight  of  lard.  Rub  a  little  of  this  oint- 
ment into  the  head  of  the  sheep.  Part  the  wool  so  as  to 
expose  the  skin  in  a  line  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  and  then 
apply  a  little  of  the  ointment  with  the  finger  the  whole  way. 
Make  a  similar  furrow  and  application,  on  each  side,  four 
inches  from  the  first,  and  so  on  over  the  whole  body.  The 
quantity  of  ointment  (after  being  compounded  with  the  lard) 
should  not  exceed  two  ounces ;  and  considerably  less  will 
generally  suffice.  A  lamb  requires  but  one-third  as  much  as 
a  grown  sheep.  This  will  generally  cure,  but  if  the  sheep 
should  continue  to  rub  itself,  a  lighter  application  of  the  same 
should  be  made  in  ten  days. 

No.  3. — Take  of  lard  or  palm  oil  2  Ibs.,  oil  of  tar  \  lb., 
sulphur  1  lb.  Gradually  mix  the  last  two,  then  rub  down  the 
compound  with  the  first.  Apply  in  the  same  way  as  No.  2. 

No.  4. — Take  of  corrosive  sublimate  %  lb.,  white  hellebore, 
powered,  f  lb.,  whale  or  other  oil  6  gallons,  rosin  2  Ibs., 
tallow  2  Ibs.  "  The  first  two  to  be  mixed  with  a  little  of  the 
oil,  and  the  rest  being  melted  together,  the  whole  to  be 
gradually  mixed."  This  is  a  powerful  preparation  and  must 
not  be  applied  too  freely. 

Mr.  Spooner  gives  the  preference  to  No.  1,  as  least 
troublesome ;  Mr.  Youatt  to  No.  2 ;  and  the  author  of  the 
Mountain  Shepherd's  Manual  to  No.  4.  I  should  certainly 
prefer  No.  3,  if  it  is,  as  it  is  asserted  to  be,  equally  effectual, 
for  the  reason  that  it  contains  no  poisonous  or  dangerous 
ingredients.  But  its  perfect  efficacy  may  be  doubted. 

Mr.  Robert  Smith,  in  his  Prize  Essay,  several  times  cited, 
declares  that  scab  "  is  never  observed  or  known  to  arise 
spontaneously  in  a  flock,"  in  England.  It  is  clearly  and 
concededly  not  spontaneous  in  the  United  States.  Mr.  Smith 
adds : — "  When  first  discovered,  the  whole  flock  should  be 
carefully  inspected  and  the  diseased  subjects  removed  to  a 
separate  field ;  it  is  best  to  give  the  whole  flock  a  light 
dressing,  as  a  preventive ;  no  fear  need  to  be  entertained  of 
dressing  the  inlambed  ewes,  as  I  have  had  occasion  to 
practice  it  at  different  periods  and  have  experienced  no  ill 
effects,  observing  not  to  dress  the  belly  or  points.  The 
mercurial  ointment  in  common  use,  prepared  by  all  druggists, 
is  found  to  be  sufficiently  good,*  without  resorting  to  other 

*  Mr.  Smith  undoubtedly  means  mercurial  ointment  prepared  by  druggists  for 
this  especial  object  — not  mercurial  ointment  having  the  full  strength  of  that  prepared 
according  to  the  London  and  New  York  pharmacopoeia,  which  are  the  same,  viz., 


THE   SCAB.  343 

recipes ;  when  ordered  the  party  should  take  care  to  name  that 
it  is  required  for  the  specific  purpose  of  curing  the  disease, 
that  attention  may  be  specially  paid  to  the  grinding  of  the 
quicksilver.  In  mild  cases  one  dressing  by  an  experienced 
shepherd,  at  the  rate  of  3  Ibs.  to  the  score  for  full-grown 
sheep,  and  2^  Ibs.  for  younger  ones,  will  prove  sufficient,* 
plenty  of  shreds  being  the  principal  feature,  and  also  observing 
to  dress  the  points  pretty  freely;  care  should  be  taken  to 
shut  them  up  one  or  more  nights,  according  to  the  case,  and 
afterwards  kept  in  a  warmer  situation,  if  possible,  for  a  time, 
and  given  a  good  supply  of  food.  In  bad  cases,  it  is  proper 
to  inspect  them  weekly,  until  the  disease  be  entirely 
removed,  and  give  opening  medicines  pretty  freely.  Should 
any  die  under  the  operation,  the  remainder  should  be  washed 
immediately ;  if  the  disease  do  not  then  stop,  they  should  be 
shorn,  which  is  a  certain  remedy." 

Tobacco  has  always  been  the  favorite  American  remedy, 
but  at  the  present  time  would  be  very  expensive.  If  every 
farmer  would,  in  a  bed  of  his  garden,  raise  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  tobacco  plants  for  this  purpose  and  for  dipping 
his  lambs,  it  would  cost  him  but  a  trifle. 

Prof.  Simonds,  one  of  the  most  recent  writers  on  the 
subject,  recommends  a  liquid  prepared  as  follows  : 

"Take  two  ounces  arsenic  and  two  ounces  carbonate  of 
potash,  and  boil  in  a  quart  of  water  till  dissolved,  and  then 
add  water  enough  to  make  a  gallon  of  the  solution.  To  this 
add  a  gallon  of  vegetable  infusion,  made  by  pouring  a  gallon 
of  water  over  four  ounces  of  fox-glove  leaves,  (digitalis,}  and 
allowing  the  infusion  to  remain  till  cold,  when  it  is  poured 
off.  '  These  two  gallons  of  liquid,'  he  says,  '  constitute  a  safe 
agent,  and  one  of  the  most  potent  remedies  for  scab.  Half  a 
pint  of  it  (from  a  bottle  with  a  quill  in  the  cork,)  on  the  skin 
at  the  back  and  sides  of  the  sheep.  Two  or  three  dressings 
will  be  found  sufficient  to  cure  the  most  inveterate  cases  of 
scab  in  sheep.'  The  digitalis  leaves  can  be  obtained  at  any 
drug  store."f 

compounded  of  mercury  2  Ibs.,  lard  23  oz.,  suet  1  oz.  There  is  a  mild  mercurial  oint- 
ment, prepared  in  London  and  sold  under  that  name,  which  is  compounded  of  strong 
mercurial  ointment  1  lb.,  lard  2  Ibs.  The  proper  reduction  of  the  strong  mercurial 
ointment  of  the  shops  is  given  in  No.  2  of  the  remedies  mentioned  in  text. 

*  Mr.  Smith  writes  of  large  English  sheep.  I  should  consider  1  oz.  of  the  reduced 
ointment  per  head,  quite  enough  for  Merino  sheep,  and  half  that  amount  for  lambs  — 
in  winter. 

+  I  think  I  cut  this  from  the  American  Stock  Journal— but  accidentally  failed  to 
mark  it  with  its  proper  credit  at  the  time. 


344  OTHER  CUTANEOUS  ERUPTIONS. 

ERYSIPELATOUS  SCAB.  —  This  is  described  by  Mr. 
Stevenson  (quoted  by  Mr.  Youatt)  as  consisting  of  an 
"  inflammation  of  the  skin  that  raises  it  into  blisters  contain- 
ing a  thin,  reddish  and  watery  fluid.  These  continue  for  a 
short  time,  break  and  discharge  their  matter,  and  are  followed 
by  a  blackish  scab."  Mr.  Youatt  says  this  disease  is  rare  — 
that  a  little  blood  should  be  abstracted  —  and  a  purge  of 
Epsom  salts  administered.  External  applications  are  not 
usually  necessary,  but  if  there  are  much  burning  and  itching, 
sweet  oil  or  camphorated  oil  will  afford  relief.  I  have  never 
seen  this  disease. 

WILD  FIEE  AND  IGNIS  SACEK.  —  Mr.  Youatt  says: — "The 
wild  fire,  or  more  extensive  vesication  and  torture,  (than 
erysipelatous  scab)  and  to  a  certain  degree  infectious,  has 
occasionally  existed  as  an  epidemic  [epizootic.]  The  Ignis 
sacer  or  violent  cutaneous  inflammation  of  the  skin  of 
the  sheep,  is  occasionally  mentioned  in  every .  history  of 
the  epidemics  of  sheep.  As,  however,  a  disease  to  be 
traced  to  any  definite  cause,  and  attacking  solitary  indi- 
viduals of  the  flock,  and  thence  communicated  to  others,  it  is 
unknown."  I  think  these  forms  of  cutaneous  eruption  are 
unknown  in  the  United  States. 

OTHEK  CUTANEOUS  ERUPTIONS. — I  received  numerous 
letters  from  Texas  for  a  few  months  preceding  the  close  of 
mail  communication,  by  the  present  war,  describing  a 
cutaneous  eruption  of  very  general  prevalence  among  the 
sheep  of  that  State  —  and  inquiring  whether  it  was  scab,  and 
what  was  its  proper  remedy.  The  disease  described  by  the 
different  writers  —  twenty  or  thirty  in  all  —  appeared  to  be 
substantially  the  same.  The  sheep  was  uneasy  and  rubbed 
itself  as  if  it  itched  more  or  less  violently.  Pustules  did  not 
appear  on  the  skin,  break  and  form  sores  as  in  scab  —  but  the 
cuticle  was  thickened,  rough,  and  sometimes  rather  red  as  if 
covered  with  a  rash.  I  think  the  sheep  did  not  usually  tear 
off  much  of  their  wool.  It  seems  to  have  spread  rapidly 
from  flock  to  flock  as  if  contagious  or  epizootic. 

I  recommended  dipping  the  sheep  in  tobacco-water  strong 
enough  to  kill  ticks.  I  had  heard  from  several  of  these  flocks 
before  the  mails  were  closed:  and  in  every  instance  the 
remedy  proved  effectual. 

Some  forms  of  cutaneous  disease,  differing  essentially  from 
scab,  have  appeared  occasionally,  though  very  rarely,  among 


SMALL   POX.  345 

sheep  in  New  York,  and,  I  think,  in  all  the  Northern  States. 
Sometimes  a  flock  in  winter  exhibit  considei'able  itching  about 
their  under  parts,  and  scratch  them  with  their  feet,  pulling 
out  the  wool.  This  yields  to  an  application  of  tobacco-water. 
I  would  suggest  that  sulphur  ointment  be  tested  as  a  remedy 
in  these  minor  eruptive  diseases.  Number  3,  among  the  scab 
remedies  given  above,  would  also  seem  to  be  a  promising 
remedy  for  them.  But  if  farmers  will  raise  their  own  tobacco, 
it  would  probably  leave  nothing  to  desire,  either  on  the  score 
of  efficacy  or  economy.  Certain  eruptions  of  the  face,  lips, 
&c.,  have  been  mentioned  at  pages  269,  271. 

SMALL  Pox,  OK  VARIOLA  OVINA. —  When  Messrs.  Youatt 
and  Spooner  wrote  their  works  on  the  sheep,  this  fearful 
malady  had  been  long  known  on  the  Continent,  but  had  never 
visited  Great  Britain.  It  however  appeared  in  England,  in 
1847  I  think,  and  committed  desolating  ravages.  It  has  not 
been  introduced  into  the  United  States,  but  as  no  one  knows 
how  soon  it  may  be  —  by  the  same  means  by  which  that 
malady  might  be  introduced  among  human  subjects  —  its 
history  and  treatment  deserve  special  attention. 

La  Clavelee,  as  it  is  termed  in  France,  attacks  sheep  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  all  conditions  —  but  lambs 
sooner  than  grown  sheep.  Half,  and  not  unfrequently  two- 
thirds  of  a  flock  used  to  perish  by  it.  The  sheep  which 
recovers  does  not  contract  it  the  second  time.  It  is  communi- 
cated by  contagion,  and  in  every  possible  indirect  way  in 
Avhich  contagion  is  communicated  among  human  beings,  by 
substances  which  had  been  in  contact  with  the  subjects  of 
the  disease.  A  flock  take  it  by  being  turned  on  a  pasture 
which  was  occupied  two  or  three  months  before  by  diseased 
animals — or  by  being  driven  over  a  road  recently  traveled 
by  them.  Mr.  Youatt  thus  condenses  and  translates  the 
statements  of  various  French  writers  on  the  subject : 

"  In  the  regular  clavelee  there  were  four  distinct  periods ; 
first,  the  symptoms  which  preceded  the  eruption,  as  dullness, 
loss  of  appetite  and  strength,  and  debility,  marked  by  a 
peculiar  staggering  gait,  the  suspension  of  animation,  and 
slight  symptoms  of  fever.  This  continued  during  about  four 
days,  when  commenced  the  second  period,  or  that  of  eruption. 
Little  spots  of  a  violet  color  appeared  in  various  parts,  and 
from  their  center  there  sprung  pustules  accompanied  by  more 
or  less  inflammation,  isolated  or  confluent,  and  with  a  white 
head ;  their  base  was  well  marked  and  distinct,  they  w^ere 
15* 


346  SMALL -POX. 


surrounded  by  a  red  areola  and  their  center  was  flattened. 
They  were  larger  than  an  ordinary  lentil.  In  some  animals 
they  were  confined  to  a  few  spots,  in  others  they  spread  over 
the  whole  body.  They  were  scattered  here  and  there,  or 
disposed  in  the  form  of  beads,  or  congregated  together  in  a 


"  When  the  disease  was  not  of  an  acute  character,  and  the 
eruption  was  not  considerable,  and  the  febrile  symptoms  were 
mitigated  as  soon  as  the  pustule  was  developed,  there  was 
not  much  to  fear.  The  eruption  ran  through  its  several 
stages,  and  no  serious  disorganization  remained ;  but  in  too 
many  cases  the  whole  of  the  integument  became  reddened  and 
inflamed,  the  flanks  heaved,  the  pulse,  whether  strong  or 
obscure,  increased  in  frequency,  the  mouth  was  hot,  the 
conjunctiva  red,  the  breath  fetid,  the  head  swelled,  the  eye- 
lids almost  closed ;  rumination  had  ceased,  the  muscular 
power  was  exhausted,  the  pustules  died  away  with  little 
apparent  fluid  secretion,  a  fetid  diarrhea  ensued,  and  death 
speedily  took  place. 

"  The  progress  of  the  eruptive  stage  of  the  disease  was 
frequently,  however,  a  very  unsatisfactory  one.  When  the 
pustule  had  risen,  and  the  suppuration  had  commenced,  a  new 
state  of  febrile  excitement  ensued,  accompanied  by  more  than 
usual  debility.  It  lasted  from  three  to  four  days,  and  during 
its  continuance  the  pustules  became  whiter  at  their  summit, 
and  the  fluid  which  they  contained  was  of  a  serous  character, 
yellow  or  red,  transparent  or  viscid,  and  by  degrees  it 
thickened  and  became  opaque,  and  then  puriform ;  and  at  this 
period,  when  danger  was  to  be  apprehended,  a  defluxion  from 
the  nose  ensued,  and  swellings  about  the  head  as  already 
described. 

"  This  was  the  contagious  stage  of  the  disease,  and  when 
it  was  too  easily  and  fatally  transmissible  by  accidental 
contact  or  by  inoculation. 

"  Then  came  the  last  stage,  that  of  desiccation,  and  about 
the  twelfth  day  from  the  commencement  of  the  disease.  The 
pustules  subsided,  or  the  integument  gave  way,  and  the  fluid 
which  they  contained  escaped,  and  a  scab  was  formed  of 

freater  or  less  size  and  density,  yellow  or  black,  and  which 
etached  itself  bodily,  or  crumbled  away  in  minute  particles 
or  powder.  The  contagion  was  now  at  an  end,  and  the 
animal  recovered- his  appetite  and  spirits  and  strength.  This 
stage  of  desquamation  frequently  lasted  three  weeks  or  a 
month. 


SMALL-POX.  347 

"A  secondary  eruption  occasionally  followed,  of  an  erysip- 
elatous  character.  There  were  no  distinct  suppurating 
pustules ;  but  there  was  a  more  serous  or  watery  secretion 
which  soon  died. 

"  This  was  the  regular  and  the  fortunate  course  of  the 
disease ;  but  too  frequently  there  was  a  fetal  irregularity 
about  it.  Almost  at  the  commencement  there  was  excessive 
fever,  and  prostration  of  strength  and  fetid  breath,  and 
detachment  of  large  patches  of  the  wool,  and  more  rapid  and 
bounding  or  inappreciable  pulse,  and  strange  swellings  about 
the  throat  and  head,  and  difficult  deglutition.  There  was  also 
a  discharge  of  adhesive,  spumy  fluid  from  the  mouth,  and  of 
ichorous  or  thick,  and  yellow,  or  bloody,  and  fetid  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  often  completely  occupying  and  obstructing 
them.  The  respiration  became  not  only  laborious,  but  every 
act  of  it  could  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance  —  there 
was  a  distressing  cough  —  the  lips,  the  nostrils,  the  eyelids, 
the  head,  and  every  limb  became  swelled,  the  pustules  ran 
together,  and  formed  large  masses  over  the  face,  and  the 
articulations :  diarrhea,  that  bade  defiance  to  every  medicine 
ensued,  and  the  end  was  not  far  off." 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease,  after  it  appeared  in  England, 
are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Thomas  Wells,  of  Norwich,  in  the 
Xorwich  Mercury* : — "  The  leading  symptoms  of  small  pox 
are,  a  separation  of  the  infected  animal  from  the  flock,  a 
peculiar  arching  of  the  back,  a  drooping  of  the  ears,  a  closing 
of  the  eyelids,  amounting  in  some  cases  almost  to  blindness, 
and  a  pustular  eruption,  extending  more  or  less  over  all  parts 
of  the  body,  but  particularly  those  destitute  of  wool  or 
covered  with  hair  only;  such  for  instance,  as  the  cheeks, 
the  skin  inside  the  arms  and  thighs,  the  under  surface  of 
the  tail,  udder,  etc." 

The  treatment  of  the  malady,  given  by  Messrs.  Youatt 
and  Spooner,  (taken  doubtless  from  Continental  works  on  the 
subject,)  is  to  separate  out  the  diseased  sheep  from  the  flock, 
give  them  good  food,  protect  them  from  wet  and  cold,  open 
their  bowels  with  Epsom  salts  during  the  febrile  state,  and 
afterward  administer  small  doses  of  the  salts  with  mild 
tonics,  such  as  ginger  and  gentian.  "  Common  salt  was  a 
favorite  and  very  useful  medicine,  on  account  of  its  anti- 
septic and  tonic  properties." 

The  disease  raged  in  Flanders,  and  I  give  the  treatment 

*  I  find  it  republished  in  the  London  Farmer's  Magazine. 


348  SMALL-POX. 

adopted  in  that  country  as  more  full,  in  some  important 
particulars,  than  the  preceding,  and  as  describing,  in  detail, 
some  of  the  minor  manipulations  and  precautions  necessary  in 
treating  the  malady.  In  this  light,  it  is  a  useful  addition  to 
the  preceding  prescriptions.  If  not  adopted  fully  in  this 
country — should  the  unfortunate  occasion  arise  for  our 
combating  this  malady  —  it  at  least  furnishes  useful  hints. 
Professor  A.  Numann,  of  the  Veterinary  College  of  Utrecht, 
in  his  work  on  the  diseases  of  animals,  writes  as  follows : 

"  When  the  sheep  eat  freely  and  appear  playful,  while 
the  pox  comes  out  regularly,  breaks,  and  dries  up,  no  medicine 
is  requisite;  but  should  they  lose  their  appetite,  show  an 
inclination  to  lie  down,  the  heart  beating  quick  and  strong, 
and  the  pox  not  make  its  appearance  on  the  third  day,  then 
nature  requires  assistance  to  drive  the  diseases  outward ;  to 
this  effect  the  following  remedy  is  necessary: 

""Take  2  oz.  of  juniper  berries  pulverized;  a  root  of  parsely 
cut,  and  split  peas  reduced  to  a  powder,  two  handfuls  each : 
boil  all  this  in  4  Ibs.  of  water ;  clear  it  off,  mix  in  it  ^  oz. 
camphor,  which  has  been  previously  dissolved  in  the  yolk  of 
an  egg,  and  1  oz.  of  good  wine  vinegar :  this  mixture  to  be 
divided  in  eight  parts,  one  part  to  be  administered  night  and 
morning  till  the  pox  is  forced  out.  To  obtain  this  point  the 
following  remedy  will  also  be  found  efficacious : — Take  flour 
of  brimstone  f  oz.,  the  juniper  berries,  to  be  pulverized,  the 
camphor  mixed  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  and  the  whole  mixed 
with  4  oz.  honey :  to  be  divided  in  eight  parts,  one  part  to  be 
given  at  night  and  morning. 

"  The  stable  in  which  the  sheep  are  kept  should  be  dry 
and  airy,  and  not  too  warm ;  they  ought  to  have  fine,  sweet 
hay,  with  barley  straw  cut  very  fine,  which  may  be  mixed 
with  wheat  bran  moistened,  bruised  barley  or  flour  of  rice  ;  a 
little  salt  to  be  mixed  daily  with  it.  When  the  pox  is  thrown 
out  without  containing  any  matter,  the  first  given  remedy  is  to 
be  applied,  and  a  seton  to  be  set  in  the  chest  and  each  loin, 
which  is  to  be  effected  in  the  following  manner.  Shear  off 
the  wool,  to  the  size  of  a  hand's  breadth,  from  the  part  where 
you  wish  to  place  the  seton ;  cut  two  small  holes,  the  one 
above  the  other,  through  the  hide,  at  a  distance  of  three 
fingers ;  loosen  the  communication  between  one  incision  and 
the  other  by  means  of  a  flat  stick ;  then  draw  through  the 
opening  a  piece  of  linen  half  a  finger's  breadth,  of  which  that 
part  that  goes  under  the  hide  must  be  besmeared  on  botli 
sides  with  butter ;  the  next  day  draw  the  band  a  little  and 


SMALL -POX.  349 

besmear  it  afresh  ;  take  care  that  the  band  be  long  enough  to 
enable  you  to  tie  it,  to  prevent  its  slipping  out.  On  the  fifth 
or  sixth  day,  when  the  pock  is  charged  with  matter,  the  linen 
or  band  may  be  draAvn,  and  the  above  remedy  dispensed  with. 
"  When  the  blood  is  not  freed  from  pock  matter,  it  often 
produces  (when  the  pox  is  already  cured)  a  SAvelling  in  one  or 
other  part  of  the  body ;  as  soon  as  such  swelling  is  come  to 
maturity,  it  ought  to  be  opened,  and  the  matter  washed  away 
quickly.  If  the  eyes  should  be  closed  with  a  swelling,  they 
must  be  often  bathed  with  water,  and  when  opened  the  matter 
carefully  washed  away.  The  following  remedies  may  be 
applied  in  cases  of  malignant  small  pox.  The  pustules  seldom 
burst  without  assistance,  but  the  matter  they  contain  spread- 
ing continually,  they  ought  to  be  opened  with  a  sharp-pointed 
knife  as  soon  as  they  are  in  a  state  of  maturity ;  and  after 
squeezing  out  the  matter,  to  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  salt 
and  water  until  a  cure  is  performed. 

"  As  the  small  pox  is  very  contagious,  it  is  necessary  to 
guard  against  it  as  much  as  possible,  and  when  discovered 
to  separate  the  sheep  aifected  from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and 
place  them  in  another  stable,  which  ought  to  be  fumigated 
with  juniper  berries  twice  a  day  at  least;  the  manure  taken 
out,  and  fresh  straw  put  in  daily;  besides,  the  stable  must 
(after  the  complaint  has  subsided)  be  scoured  with  a  solution 
of  wood  ashes,  and  then  fumigated  with  chlorine,  before  it  is 
made  use  of  to  receive  sound  sheep. 

"  In  summer,  sheep  affected  with  the  small  pox  may  be 
driven  in  fine  weather  for  a  few  hours,  morning  and  evening, 
in  the  field,  but  care  must  be  taken  they  do  not  go  near  the 
sound  ones ;  the  latter  must  not  go  into  the  field  where  the 
former  have  grazed:  in  general,  all  communication,  of  what- 
ever- nature  it  may  be,  between  the  sick  and  sound  sheep  must 
be  avoided,  and  the  shepherd  who  conducts  and  has  care  of 
the  sick  sheep  should  take  care  not  to  approach  the  sound 
sheep,  lest  he  should  communicate  the  contagion." 

In  1760,  healthy  sheep  were  inoculated  with  the  virus  of 
the  diseased  ones,  and  the  effects  were  found  analogous  to 
those  of  inoculation  for  small  pox  among  human  subjects.  A 
disease  having  the  same  character  was  produced,  but  it  was 
mild  and  rarely  mortal.  In  a  paper  in  the  London  Farmer's 
Magazine,  September,  1848,  Mr.  O.  Delafond  states  that  to 
sum  up  the  recorded  cases  of  inoculations  made  in  France, 
by  Huard,  Valois,  Langlois,  Guillaume,  Buignot,  D'Arboval, 
Graguier,  Girard,  etc.,  between  1805  and  1848,  the  number  of 


350  SMALL-POX. 

subjects  which  recovered  was  28,248,  and  the  number  which 
died  was  285  — or  about  one  per  cent.  M.  Gayot  inoculated 
10,000  in  the  departments  of  La  Marne  and  La  Haute  Marne 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  disease,  w*hen  the  mortality  was 
twenty  per  cent,  among  those  having  it  in  the  natural  way  ; 
and  he  lost  only  one  and  one  half  per  cent,  of  his  patients. 
Messrs.  Miquel  and  Thomieres  inoculated  between  December, 
1820,  and  January,  1822,  17,044  sheep,  comprising  eighty-four 
flocks,  and  forty-two  of  them  infected  ones.  In  some  of  the 
flocks  not  previously  infected  they  did  not  lose  a  patient.  In 
one,  in  which  two-thirds  of  the  sheep  were  already  attacked 
by  the  disease,  they  lost  about  eight  per  cent,  of  the  remaining 
number,  many  of  which  were  doubtless  in  the  incubatory 
state  of  the  disease  when  inoculated.  Out  of  66,716  inocu- 
lated in  Prussia,  65,042  recovered.  Out  of  8,000  sheep  and 
2,000  lambs  inoculated  in  Austria,  not  one  was  lost.  These 
examples  might  be  indefinitely  multiplied. 

D'Arboval  states  that  7,697  sheep  which  had  received  the 
disease  by  inoculation  and  recovered,  had  been  re-inoculated, 
made  to  cohabit  with  sheep  laboring  under  the  natural 
disease,  &c.,  &c.,  and  that  in  no  instance  did  they  again 
contract  the  malady. 

Mr.  Youatt  declares  that  variola  ovina  is  not  identical 
with  small-pox  in  the  human  being.  He  says  there  is  an 
evident  difference  in  the  pustule  —  that  of  small-pox  being 
"  developed  in  the  texture  of  the  skin,  and  surrounded  by  a 
rose-colored  areola,  that  of  the  clavellee  evidently  more  deep- 
seated —  reaching  to  the  sub-cutaneous  cellular  tissue  and 
surrounded  by  an  areola  of  a  far  deeper  color.  The  virus  of 
small-pox  was  usually  contained  in  a  simple  capsule  which 
elevated  the  scarf  skin  —  the  virus  of  the  sheep-pox  seemed 
to  be  more  diffused  through  the  cutaneous  and  sub-cutaneous 
tissue,  and  there  was  abundantly  more  swelling  and  inflamma- 
tion." He  describes  other  differences  in  the  appearance  of 
the  matter,  scabs,  &c.* 

Vaccination  followed  the  introduction  of  inoculation.  To 
test  their  respective  usefulness,  1,523  sheep  were  vaccinated 
in  France,  and  the  disease  became  fully  developed  in  them. 
They  were  all  subsequently  inoculated  with  the  virus  of  sheep- 
pox,  and  308  took  the  disease,  though  in  the  mitigated  form 
usual  after  inoculation.  Other  smaller  experiments  had  a 
corresponding  result;  and,  therefore,  says  Mr.  Youatt  —  at 

*  I  suppose  that  Mr.  Youatt  in  expressing  these  opinions,  expresses  the  opinions 
of  the  learned  veterinarians  of  the  Continent. 


SMALL -POX.  351 

the  period  of  writing  his  work  on  the  sheep  —  "vaccine 
inoculation  is  now  abandoned  on  the  Continent,  although  it 
gives  immunity  to  four-fifths  of  those  that  have  been  subjected 
to  it,  for  inoculation  with  le  claveau,  or  the  virus  of  sheep- 
pox,  will  give  immunity  to  all." 

"When  this  malady  made  its  advent  in  England,  it  was  by 
imported  sheep  —  and  the  weight  of  testimony  would  seem  to 
show  that  the  disease  was  not  apparent  in  them  at  the  time, 
but  was  in  its  incubatory  state.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  period  of  incubation  is  long  enough  to  allow  infected 
sheep  to  be  brought  from  Europe  to  America,  in  the  swift- 
sailing  steamers  of  the  present  day,  before  the  disease  would 
produce  any  appearances  which  those  not  practically  familiar 
Avith  sheep-pox  would  recognize  as  characteristic  of  the 
malady ;  *  and  the  malady  might  progress  much  further 
without  its  nature  being  understood  or  suspected,  in  any 
region  where  it  had  not  been  previously  known,  and  where 
its  advent  was  totally  unlocked  for.  And  there  is  just  as 
little  doubt  that  it  might  be  brought  here  at  any  time  by 
wool,  or  pelts  of  diseased  sheep,  or  any  other  substances 
infected  by  them,  and  under  some  disastrous  combination  of 
circumstances  introduced,  like  fire  to  a  train  of  powder,  among 
the  flocks  of  the  American  Continent.  In  England  the  flocks 
exposed  to  its  ravages  were  larger  than  those  of  our  Eastern 
States,  and  much  nearer  together  than  those  in  any  part  of 
our  country  —  circumstances  favorable  to  its  more  i-apid 
propagation  there :  but  there  it  was  encountered  with  profes- 
sional veterinary  skill  —  cheap  labor  for  attendance  —  and  the 
determined  efforts  of  a  government  and  people  which  had 
vast  interests  at  stake,  and  but  a  comparatively  small  home 
territory  to  watch  over.  Here,  unless  mitigated  by  climatic 
circumstances  —  a  thing  not  to  be  anticipated  from  any 
analogy  derivable  from  our  experience  with  small-pox  in  human 
beings  —  it  would  advance  more  slowly,  perhaps,  but  I 
apprehend  with  more  destructive  results.  Our  breeders,  and 
the  very  intelligent  and  public-spirited  breeders  of  Canada, 
who  are  constantly  introducing  sheep  from  Europe,  are  called 
upon,  then,  by  every  consideration  of  interest  and  propriety, 

*  Prof.  J.  B.  Simond*'  Lecturer  on  Cattle  Medicine,  etc.,  at  the  Royal  Veternary 
College,  England,  and  who  was  appointed  government  inspector  of  diseased  sheep, 
when  the  sheep-pox  appeared  in  England,  states  that  it  is  about  ten  days  from  the 
time  of  the  contact  of  a  sound  animal  with  a  diseased  one  before  the  first  symptoms 
appear.  This  is  to  be  understood,  doubtless,  as  the  average  period  of  incubation, 
and  it  might  under  various  circumstances,  or  in  different  sheep,  be  extended  several 
days  longer. 


352  SMALL-POX. 

to  exercise  a  constant  and  watchful  care  on  this  subject  —  not 
only  where  sheep-pox  is  raging  and  is  the  subject  of  public 
attention  in  the  foreign  countries  where  they  purchase  sheep, 
but  at  all  times,  if  it  is  known  that  the  malady  has  ever  visited 
those  countries.  The  man  who  even  carelessly  brought  this 
scourge  to  our  shores,  would  deserve  and  receive  the  reproba- 
tion of  a  Continent. 

I  am  not  aware  that  any  important  discoveries  have  been 
made  in  the  actual  treatment  of  the  disease  in  England  ;  and 
owing  to  my  failure  to  obtain  certain  expected  English 
publications  on  the  subject,  before  the  completion  of  this 
volume,  I  cannot  give  any  particular  history  of  the  disease  in 
that  country  obtained  from  authoritatiATe  sources.  The 
general  tenor  of  my  information  on  the  subject  is,  that  the 
Variola  Ovina,  in  its  natural  form,  is  as  destructive  and 
contagious  there  as  on  the  Continent ;  that  the  means  relied 
on  to  counteract  it  are  principally  preventive  /  that  the  main 
modes  of  preventing  it  are  by  inoculation  and  vaccination. 
It  seems  that  there  are  those  who  prefer  the  latter  mode.  I 
saw  it  stated  in  an  article  in  the  American  Agriculturist,  that 
an  association  of  sheep  breeders  in  Wiltshire,  England,  on 
trial,  much  preferred  vaccination.  * 

The  disease,  after  a  lull  of  a  few  years,  has  recently,  it 
would  seem,  re-appeared  in  England.  I  cut  the  following 
paragraphs  on  the  subject  from  "  Moore's  Rural  New- 
Yorker:" 

"  From  Bell's  Messenger  we  learn  that  the  medicines 
employed  in  Mr.  Parry's  flock,  where  the  disease  was  first 
apparent,  are  very  simple,  consisting  chiefly  of  nitrate  of 
potassa,  mingled  with  the  water  which  is  placed  in  the 
troughs,  until  a  subsidence  of  the  fever  takes  place,  after 
which  sulphate  of  iron  lias  been  substituted.  Where  diarrhea 
has  come  on  —  as  it  not  uufrequently  does  in  the  latter  stage 
of  the  malady,  more  particularly  if  the  pox  becomes  conflu- 
ent— opium  is  recommended  as  a  valuable  agent  to  arrest  the 
attack,  which,  if  not  quickly  stopped,  very  soon  carries  oif  the 
sheep. 

"  Speaking    of   inoculation,    the   Messenger    remarks :  — 

*  It  was  stated  in  this  article  that  the  inoculated  sheep  "  died  off  rapidly,  and 
thus  the  proposed  prevention  only  spread  the  infection."  If  this  is  a  correct  statement 
of  the  facts,  it  only  shows,  I  imagine,  that  the  flocks  of  Wiltshire  were  inoculated 
with  improper  virus,  or  that  they  were  affected  by  exceptional  and  inauspicious  cir- 
cumstances. The  alleged  result  is  too  much  opposed  to  the  well  settled  facts  which 
attend  inoculation,  developed  under  upwards  of  a  century  and  a  half  of  observa- 
tion—  and  to  the  combined  experience  of  the  Continental  veterinarians  —  to  be  enti- 
tled to  credit. 


SMALL-POX.  353 

'Nearly  three  weeks  have  now  elapsed  since  Mr.  Parry's 
flock  were  inoculated  j  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  out  of 
446  ewes  in  which  the  disease  was  thus  artificially,  as  it  were, 
produced,  he  has  lost  only  four;  while  of  those  which  took  the 
disease  naturally,  the  losses  have  already  been  sixty  per  cent., 
and  there  are  numbers  of  other  sheep  of  whose  recovery  there 
is  little  hope, — indeed,  the  total  loss  of  those  which  have  taken 
the  disease  in  a  natural  way,  Mr.  Parry  estimates  will  not  be 
much  short  of  65  per  cent.  Putting  this,  therefore,  in  contrast 
with  the  results  after  inoculation  —  which,  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  are  not  expected  to  average  a  mor- 
tality of  more  than  five  per  cent.  —  the  desirableness  of 
inoculation  immediately  upon  the  appearance  of  the  disease 
in  a  flock  is  placed  beyond  doubt.' " 


CHAPTER    XXVm. 

DISEASES  OP  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  OEGAES. 

FRACTURES — RHEUMATISM — DISEASE    OF   THE    BIFLEX   CANAL 

GRAVEL TRAVEL-SORE — LAMENESS   FROM    FROZEN   MUD 

FOULS H  O  OF  -  ROT. 

FRACTURES. —  The  most  common  fractures  which  occur  in 
the  brittle  bones  of  the  sheep  are  in  the  legs  below  the  knees 
and  hocks ;  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  treating  such  cases. 
Any  intelligent  man  is  a  sufficient  surgeon  for  the  occasion. 
The  bones  should  be  brought  to  their  natural  position  and 
confined  there  with  splints  —  or  thin  pieces  of  wood  shaped 
to  the  leg  and  wound  with  strips  of  muslin,  which  confine  a 
layer  of  cotton  batting  on  the  side  next  the  leg.  The  splints 
are  confined  to  the  leg  by  winding  twine  around  the  whole 
when  they  are  arranged  in  their  places.  I  never  had  occasion 
to  ease  the  limb  on  account  of  its  swelling  —  or  to  administer 
purgatives  in  consequence  of  any  ensuing  fever  in  the  sheep  ; 
though  both  might  be  called  for.  The  limb  is  usually  sound 
enough  to  remove  the  splints  in  the  course  of  three  or  four 
weeks  —  though  there  is  no  occasion  for  haste  in  this  particu- 
lar. In  default  of  other  convenient  materials,  I  have  applied 
the  bare  splints  over  a  wrapping  of  thick  paper  with  cotton 
or  wool  laid  evenly  under  it.  Thick  leather,  shaped  to  the 
leg  when  wet,  will  support  it  without  splints.  If  the  fracture 
is  of  the  arm  or  thigh  and  far  above  the  knee  or  hock,  it  is 
not  generally  worth  while  to  attempt  any  cure.  Mr.  Youatt 
says  if  the  shoulder  is  fractured  it  can  generally  be  success- 
fully treated  by  removing  the  wool  and  applying  a  pitch 
plaster  on  the  whole  of  the  shoulder  bone. 

RHEUMATISM. —  This  has  been  sufficiently  mentioned  at 
page  155. 

DISEASE  OF  THE  BIFLEX  CANAL. — "We  have  owners  of 
sheep  who  believe  with  Sir  Anthony  Fitzherbert,  who  flour- 
ished almost  three  centuries  and  a  half  ago,  that,  "  There  be 


GRAVEL  —  TRAVEL-SORE.  355 

some  shepe  that  hath  a  worme  in  his  foote  that  maketh  hym 
halte."  The  biflex  canal,  or  "issue"  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
(in  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the  cleft  between  the  toes,) 
gets  some  substance  introduced  into  it  which  causes  an  irrita- 
tion and  swelling  of  the  surrounding  parts ;  and  to  cure  this, 
believers  in  the  "worme"  actually,  with  a  pocket  knife, 
dissect  out — or  rather  mangle  out — the  skin  which  surrounds 
the  biflex  canal!  Such  egregious  ignorance  and  brutality, 
howevei',  are  now  extremely  rare.  Two  or  three  incisions  in 
the  swollen  parts  usually  relieve  them  of  the  inflammation. 
The  biflex  canal  and  the  other  parts  of  the  foot  should  be 
examined,  of  course,  to  see  that  no  irritating  foreign  substances 
have  become  imbedded  in  them. 

GRAVEL. —  Gravel  or  dirt  occasionally  penetrates  the 
foot  of  the  sheep  between  its  horny  covering  and  the  fleshy 
structures  underneath.  It  ultimately  produces  an  inflamma- 
tion and  swelling  at  the  coronet,  which  at  length  breaks  and 
expels  the  offending  substances.  As  this  process  produces 
considerable  pain  and  inconvenience  to  the  animal,  it  is  better, 
as  soon  as  the  lameness  is  observed,  to  remove  enough  of  the 
horny  covering  of  the  foot  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  gravel. 
It  is  well  enough,  then,  to  cover  the  parts  with  tar ;  but 
whether  this  is  done  or  not,  no  injury  will  result  from  the 
removal  of  the  necessary  portion  of  the  horn ;  and  it  will  be 
very  rapidly  reproduced. 

TRAVEL- SORE. —  Sheep  driven  several  hundred  miles 
through  mud  and  sand  —  say  from  Western  Illinois  to  the 
banks  of  the  Hudson  —  not  only  frequently  become  graveled, 
but  the  heels  are  sometimes  worn  so  thin,  and  they  and  the 
skin  between  them  become  so  tender,  that  the  sheep  proceed 
on  their  journey  with  pain,  and  fall  off  a  good  deal  more  than 
they  otherwise  would,  in  condition.  The  English  sheep  is 
much  more  subject  to  this  than  the  Merino,  both  on  account  of 
its  greater  weight,  and  because  the  horny  coverings  of  its  feet 
are  much  thinner.  The  drover  carries  a  phial  of  oil  of  vitriol 
in  his  pocket.  The  bottom  of  the  heels  are  touched  by  a  feather 
dipped  in  this,  when  the  drove  stops  at  night  —  and  a  little 
tar  from  the  inn -keeper's  bucket  is  smeared  on  the  cauterized 
parts,  on  the  backs  of  the  heels,  and  between  the  toes.  This 
gives  great  relief  under  any  circumstances  :  and  the  sheep 
rapidly  recovers  if  allowed  a  little  rest.  Butyr  of  antimony, 
acting  much  more  as  a  purely  superficial  caustic,  would  be  a 
better  application  than  oil  of  vitriol. 


356  FOULS HOOF -EOT. 

LAMENESS  FROM  FKOZEN  MUD. — I  have  elsewhere  men- 
tioned that  when  sheep  are  kept  in  unlittered  yards  in  winter, 
and  especially  when  they  are  allowed  to  run  over  plowed 
ground,  little  pellets  of  mud  often  adhere  to  the  hairs  which 
hang  down  in  the  clefts  of  the  feet,  and  a  sudden  and  severe 
freeze  converts  these  into  pellets  of  the  consistency  of  stone. 
Nay,  the  kneading  operation  of  the  toes  on  this  lump  of  earth 
frequently  gives  it  such  consistency  that,  on  becoming  dry 
merely,  it  acts  as  a  highly  irritating  body  in  the  foot.  I  have 
seen  half  the  sheep  of  a  flock  made  lame  enough  in  this  way 
to  give  a  strong  suspicion  of  hoof- rot.  On  looking  into  the 
feet,  the  skin  on  each  side  of  the  little  mud  ball  is  found 
chafed  and  inflamed  —  sometimes  worn  through  and  matter 
formed  in  the  wounds.  I  saw  a  purchase  of  a  valuable  flock 
of  sheep  broken  off  by  this  cause.  The  parties  had  agreed  on 
the  price,  and  both  were  anxious  to  complete  the  bargain. 
But  there  were  a  small  number  of  lame  sheep,  and  the 
purchaser  demanded  a  guaranty  against  hoof -rot,  which  the 
seller  refused  to  give,  and  consequently  lost  the  sale  of  his 
sheep  by  his  carelessness.  The  remedy,  or  rather  the  pre- 
ventive, is  too  obvious  to  require  mention. 

FOULS. —  Sheep  are  much  less  subject  to  this  disease  than 
cattle,  but  contract  it  if  kept  in  wet,  filthy  yards,  or  on  moist, 
poachy  pastures.  A  wet  season  and  tall  grass  sometimes 
produce  it,  even  on  dry  uplands.  The  skin  in  the  cleft  of  the 
foot  first  has  a  macerated  or  water-soaked  appearance,  which 
is  followed  by  a  degree  of  inflammation  and  lameness.  It 
disappears  when  the  sheep  is  removed  to  a  dry  yard  or 
pasture  —  but  more  promptly  if  the  parts  have  a  solution  of 
blue  vitriol  or  turpentine  applied  to  them,  or  are  daubed 
with  tar. 

HooF-RoT. —  I  mentioned  in  "  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the 
South,"  that  the  description  of  the  early  stages  of  this  disease 
given  in  Mr.  Youatt's  justly  popular  work  on  Sheep,  is  almost 
wholly  inapplicable  to  the  malady  in  the  United  States,  and 
among  Merino  sheep.  I  never  have  seen  it  among  English 
sheep ;  and,  in  this  country,  they,  like  all  our  other  coarse- 
wooled  varieties,  are  notoriously  less  subject  to  it  than 
Merinos,  and  far  more  readily  cured  when  they  contract  it. 
Some  of  the  reasons  for  this  fact  may  probably  be  found  in 
the  different  structure  of  their  hoofs  mentioned  at  page  168. 
As  Mr.  Youatt's  works  are  received — and,  as  a  general  thing, 


:  IIOOF-KOT.  357 

justly  received  —  as  standard  authority  among  the  great  mass 
of  the  reading  farmers  of  our  country,  I  feel  called  upon  again 
to  point  out  his  errors  on  this  subject.  I  may  be  allowed  to 
speak  with  a  degree  of  confidence  in  regard  to  a  malady 
which  has  at  f6\ir  different  periods  attacked  my  flocks  — 
embracing  as  many  as  five  thousand  sheep  in  its  different 
visitations :  and  which  has  been,  in  every  instance,  fully  and 
completely  extirpated. 

The  following  is  Mr.  Youatt's  description  of  its  first 
symptoms: — "The  foot  will  be  found  hot  and  tender,  the 
horn  softer  than  usual,  and  there  will  be  enlargement  about 
the  coronet,  and  a  slight  separation  of  the  hoof  from  it,  with 
portions  of  the  horn  worn  away,  and  ulcers  formed  below  and 
a  discharge  of  thin,  fetid  matter.  The  ulcers,  if  neglected, 
continue  to  increase ;  they  throw  out  fungous  granulations, 
they  separate  the  hoof  more  and  more  from  the  parts  beneath 
until  at  length  it  drops  off.  All  this  is  the  consequence  of 
soft  and  marshy  pasture."  Mr.  Youatt  attributes  the  disease 
not  only  to  "  infection  by  means  of  the  virus,"  but  to  particles 
of  earth  or  sand  having  forced  their  way  through  breaks  in  the 
hoof,  and  through  "new  pores,"  occasioned  by  the  over-lapping 
portions  of  the  horn  breaking  off.  These  particles  "reaching 
the  quick,  an  inflammation  is  set  up,  which,  in  its  progress,  alters 
or  destroys  the  whole  foot."  He  also  attributes  it  to  another 
cause.  "  The  length  to  which  the  crust  grows,"  he  remarks, 
"  changes  completely  the  proper  bearing  of  the  foot,  for,  being 
extended  forward,  it  takes  the  whole  weight  of  the  superin- 
cumbent parts.  By  the  continual  pressure  on  this  lengthened 
part  inflammation  cannot  fail  to  be  set  up."  In  describing 
the  progress  of  the  disease,  he  mentions  the  following  circum- 
stance : —  "  The  whole  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  pasterns  is 
sore  and  raw."  *  *  *  "In  some  cases,  as  has  appeared 
when  the  diseased  state  of  this  [the  biflex]  canal  was  exam- 
ined, the  malady  commences  here." 

The  hoof  is  not  softened  but  rather  hardened  by  the 
presence  of  hoof-rot,  until  its  structure  becomes  to  some 
extent  disorganized.  In  not  one  case  in  a  hundred  is  there 
any  visible  enlargement  about  the  coronet  in  the  early  stages 
•of  the  disease.  The  horn,  so  far  from  first  separating  from 
the  coronet,  generally  adheres  there  to  the  last,  even  when 
the  whole  bottom  of  the  hoof  is  gone,  and  nothing  but  a 
portion  of  its  side  shell  remains.  The  hoof  never  "  drops  off," 
in  the  sense  in  which  I  here  understand  Mr.  Youatt  to  mean 
—  that  is,  entire;  tftough  it  sometimes  gradually  becomes 


358  HOOF -EOT.  4 

totally  disorganized  and  thus  disappears.  The  disease  never 
commences  between  the  quick  of  the  foot  and  its  horny  shell, 
as  it  would  do  if  caused  by  sand  or  other  substances  having 
penetrated  through  the  hoof  to  those  parts.  The  improper 
bearing  of  the  foot  occasioned  by  the  extension  of  the  fore 
part  of  the  hoof  forward,  and  of  its  side  walls  downward, 
frequently  produces  some  degree  of  lameness;  but  it  is 
that  lameness  of  the  ligaments,  tendons  and  other  tissues 
in  and  connected  with  the  feet,  which  a  man  would  incur 
by  wearing  a  boot  elevated  three  inches  higher  at  the  toe 
than  at  the  heel,  and  then  additionally  tipped  to  one  side 
or  the  other :  but  it  bears  not  the  slightest  affinity  to  hoof- 
rot.  And  when  the  hoof  is  thus  extended  and  thickened 
and  elevated  in  front,  Mr.  Youatt  is  entirely  mistaken  in 
supposing  that  the  "whole  weight  of  the  superincumbent 
parts"  presses  on  this  " lengthened  part,"  or  toe:  it  unques- 
tionably presses  mainly  on .  the  heel  —  as  would  a  man's 
weight  with  his  boot  elevated  in  front,  as  already  mentioned. 
I  never  saw  a  dozen  sheep  suffering  under  hoof-rot  which  had 
"  the  inner  surface  of  their  pasterns  sore  and  raw."  And, 
finally,  genuine  hoof-rot  never  "commences"  at  the  biflex 
canal,  any  more  than  it  does  at  the  knee  or  nose  of  the  animal. 
I  could  point  out  additional  minor  errors  in  Mr.  Youatt's 
descriptions ;  but  it  is  unnecessary.  He  must  have  written 
them  without  much  personal  observation  of  the  disease,  or  he 
describes  a  different  one  —  or  hoof-rot  presents  essentially 
different  early  symptoms  in  Europe  from  what  it  does  in  the 
United  States.* 

The  horny  covering  of  the  sheep's  foot  extends  up, 
gradually  thinning  out,  some  way  between  the  toes,  or 
divisions  of  the  hoof —  and  above  these  horny  Avails  the  cleft 
is  lined  with  skin.  Where  the  points  of  the  toes  are  spread 
apart,  this  skin  is  shown  in  front  covered  with  soft,  short 
hair.  The  heels  can  be  separated  only  to  a  little  distance, 
and  the  skin  that  is  in  the  cleft  above  them  is  naked.  In  a 


*  I  can  not,  however,  accept  either  of  the  latter  explanations.  Mr.  Youatt  too 
vividly  and  clearly  describes  the  later  characteristic  lesions  of  hoof -rot  — and  which 
appertain  to  no  other  disease  —  to  leave  any  chance  for  the  supposition  that  he  was 
describing  a  different  malady :  and  I  have  no  idea,  after  examining  Continental,  and 
other  British  accounts  of  it,  that  there  is  any  material  difference  in  its  diagnostics  as 
between  any  part  of  Europe  and  America,— except  that  among  certain  breeds  of  sheep 
it  is  less  virulent  than  among  others.  Mr.  Youatt  seems  to  me  evidently  to  include 
among  the  initial  symptoms  of  hoof-rot,  those  of  gravel,  inflammation  of  the  bitlex 
canal,  and  other  scarcely  named  abnormal  conditions  of  the  foot,  which  come  and  so 
without  any  connection  with  hoof-rot  —  which  never  produced  it  —  and  which  do  not 
in  one  instance  in  a  hundred,  or  five  hundred,  accompany  it.  Mr.  Youatt,  in  tracing 
the  origin  and  progress  of  this  malady,  seems  to  me  to  have  leaned  quite  too 
heavily  on  the  statements,  or  rather  the  speculations  of  Professor  Dick,  of  Edinburgh — 
a  writer  of  ability,  but  evidently  a  very  unpractical  one  on  the  subject  of  hoof-rot. 


HOOF  -  HOT.  359 

healthy  foot  it  is  as  firm,  sound,  smooth  and  dry  as  the  skin 
between  a  man's  fingers,  which,  indeed,  it  not  a  little 
resembles,  on  a  mere  superficial  inspection.  It  is  equally 
destitute  of  any  appearance  of  redness,  or  of  feverish  heat. 

The  first  symptom  of  hoof -rot,  uniformly,  in  my  experi- 
ence, is  a  disappearance  of  this  smooth,  dry,  colorless 
condition  of  the  naked  skin  at  the  top  of  the  cleft  over  the 
heels,  and  of  its  coolness.  It  is  a  little  moist,  a  little  red, 
and  the  skin  has  a  slightly  chafed  or  eroded  appearance  — 
sometimes  being  a  very  little  corrugated,  as  if  the  parts  had 
been  subjected  to  the  action  of  moisture.  And  on  placing  the 
fingers  over  the  heels  it  will  be  found  that  the  natural  coolness 
of  the  parts  has  given  place  to  a  degree  of  heat.  The 
inflammation  thenceforth  increases  pretty  rapidly.  The  part 
first  attacked  becomes  sore.  The  moisture  —  the  ichorous 
discharge  —  is  increased.  A  raw  ulcer  of  some  extent  is 
soon  established.  It  is  extended  down  to  the  upper  portion 
of  the  inner  walls  of  the  hoof,  giving  them  a  whitened  and 
ulcerous  appearance.  Those  thin  walls  become  disorganized, 
and  the  ulceration  penetrates  between  the  fleshy  sole  and  the 
bottom  of  the  hoof.  On  applying  some  force,  or  on  shaving 
away  the  horn,  it  will  be  found  that  the  connection  between 
the  horny  and  fleshy  sole  is  severed,  perhaps  half  way  from 
the  heel  to  the  toe,  and  half  way  from  the  inner  to  the  outer 
wall  of  the  hoof.  The  hoof  is  thickened  with  great  rapidity 
at  the  heel  by  an  unnatural  deposition  of  horn.  The  crack  or 
cavity  between  it  and  the  fleshy  sole  very  soon  exudes  a 
highly  fetid  matter,  which  begins  to  have  a  purulent  appear- 
ance. The  extent  of  the  separation  increases  by  the 
disorganization  of  the  surrounding  structures  ;  the  ulceration 
penetrates  throughout  the  entire  extent  of  the  sole  ;  it  begins 
to  form  sinuses  in  the  body  of  the  fleshy  sole ;  the  purulent 
discharge  becomes  more  profuse  ;  the  horny  sole  is  gradually 
disorganized,  and  finally  the  outer  walls  and  points  of  the  toes 
alone  remain.  The  fleshy  sole  is  now  a  black,  swollen  mass 
of  corruption,  of  the  texture  of  a  sponge  saturated  with 
bloody  pus,  and'every  cavity  is  filled  with  crawling,  squirming 
maggots.  The  horny  toe  disappears;  the  thin,  shortened 
side  walls  merely  adhere  at  the  coronet ;  they  yield  to  the 
disorganization ;  and  nothing  is  left  but  a  shapeless  mass  of 
spongy  ulcer  and  maggots.  Attempts  to  cure  the  disease,  the 
state  of  the  weather,  and  other  incidental  circumstances,  cause 
some  variations  from  the  above  line  of  symptoms.  When  the 
first  attack  occurs  in  hot  weather,  the  progress  of  the  malady 
is  much  more  rapid  and  violent.  The  fly  sometimes  deposits 


360  HOOF  -  ROT. 

its  eggs  in  the  ulcer,  and  maggots  appear  almost  before  — 
sometimes  actually  before  —  there  are  any  cavities  formed, 
into  which  they  can  penetrate.  The  early  appearance  of 
maggots  greatly  accelerates  the  progress  of  disorganization 
in  the  structures. 

The  fore-feet  are  usually  first  attacked — sometimes  both 
of  them  simultaneously,  but  more  generally  only  one  of  them. 
The  animal  at  first  manifests  but  little  constitutional  dis- 
turbance. It  eats  as  is  its  wont.  When  the  disease  has 
partly  run  its  course  in  one  foot,  the  other  fore-foot  is  likely 
to  be  attacked,  and  presently  the  hind  ones.  When  a  foot 
becomes  considerably  disorganized,  it  is  held  up  by  the 
animal.  When  another  one  reaches  the  same  state,  the 
miserable  suiferer  seeks  its  food  on  its  knees  ;  and  if  forced  to 
rise  and  walk,  its  strange,  hobbling  gait  betrays  the  intense 
agony  it  endures  on  bringing  its  ulcerated  feet  in  contact 
with  the  ground:  There  is  a  bare  spot  on  the  under  side  of 
the  brisket  of  the  size  of  the  palm  of  a  man's  hand  —  but 
perhaps  a  little  longer — which  looks  red  and  inflamed. 
There  is  a  degree  of  general  fever — and  the  appetite  is  dull. 
The  animal  rapidly  loses  condition,  but  retains  considerable 
strength.  No  where  else  do  sheep  seem  to  me  to  exhibit  such 
tenacity  of  life.  After  the  disappearance  of  the  bottom  of 
the  hoof,  the  maggot  speedily  closes  the  scene.  Where  the 
rotten  foot  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  side  in  lying  down, 
the  filthy,  ulcerous  matter  adheres  to  and  saturates  the  short 
wool  of  the  shorn  sheep  :  and  maggots  also  are  either  carried 
there  by  the  foot,  or  they  are  speedily  generated  by  the  fly. 
A  black  crust  soon  forms,  and  raises  a  little  higher  round  the 
spot.  It  is  the  decomposition  of  the  surrounding  structures  — 
wool,  skin  and  muscle  —  and  innumerable  maggots  are  at 
work  below,  burrowing  into  the  living  tissues,  and  eating  up 
the  miserable  animal  alive.  The  black,  festering  mass  rapidly 
extends,  and  the  cavities  of  the  body  will  soon  be  penetrated, 
if  the  poor  sufferer  is  not  sooner  relieved  of  its  tortures  by 
death. 

The  offensive  odor  of  the  ulcerated  feet,  almost  from  the 
beginning  of  the  disease,  is  so  peculiar  that  it  is  strictly 
pathognomonic.  I  have  always  believed  that  I  could  by  the 
sense  of  smell  alone,  in  the  most  absolute  darkness,  decide  on 
the  presence  of  hoof -rot  with  unerring  certainty.  And  I  had 
about  as  lief  trust  my  fingers  as  my  eyes  to  establish  the  same 
point,  from  the  hour  of  the  first  attack,  if  no  other  disease  of 
the  foot  is  present.  But  the  heat,  which  invariably  marks  the 
earliest  presence  of  hoof- rot,  might  arise  from  any  other 


HOOP -HOT.  361 

cause  which    produced  a  local   inflammation  of   the   same 
parts. 

When  the  malady  has  been  well  kept  under  during  the 
first  summer  of  its  attack,  but  not  entirely  eradicated,  it  will 
almost  or  entirely  disappear  as  cold  weather  approaches,  and 
not  manifest  itself  again  until  the  warm  weather  of  the  succeed- 
ing summer.  It  then  assumes  a  mitigated  form ;  the  sheep  are 
not  rapidly  and  simultaneously  attacked;  there  seems  to  be  less 
inflammatory  action  in  the  diseased  parts,  and  less  constitu- 
tional disturbance ;  and  the  course  of  the  disease  is  less  malig- 
nant, more  tardy,  and  it  more  readily  yields  to  treatment. 
If  well  kept  under  tlie  second  summer,  it  is  still  milder  the  third. 
A  sheep  will  occasionally  be  seen  to  limp,  but  its  condition 
will  scarcely  be  affected,  and  dangerous  symptoms  will  rarely 
supervene.  One  or  two  applications  of  remedies  made  during 
the  summer,  will  now  suffice  to  keep  the  disease  under,  and 
a  little  vigor  in  the  treatment  will  entirely  extinguish  it. 

With  all  its  fearful  array  of  symptoms,  can  the  hoof-rot  be 
cured  in  its  first  attack  on  a  flock  ?  The  worst  case  can  be 
promptly  cured,  as  I  know  by  repeated  experiments.  Take  a 
single  sheep,  put  it  by  itself,  and  administer  the  remedies 
daily,  after  the  English  fashion,  or  as  I  shall  presently  prescribe, 
and  there  is  not  an  ovine  disease  which  more  surely  yields  to 
treatment.  But,  as  already  remarked,  in  this  country  where 
sheep  are  so  cheap  and  labor  in  the  summer  months  so  dear, 
it  would  be  out  of  the  question  for  an  extensive  flock-master 
to  attempt  to  keep  each  sheep  by  itself,  or  to  make  a  daily 
application  of  remedies.  There  is  not  a  flock-master  within 
my  knowledge  who  has  ever  pretended  to  apply  his  remedies 
oftener  than  once  a  week,  or  regularly  as  often  as  that ; 
and  not  one  in  ten  makes  any  separation  between  the 
diseased  and  healthy  sheep  of  a  flock  into  which  the  malady 
has  been  once  introduced.  The  consequence  necessarily  is 
that  though  a  cure  is  effected  of  the  sheep  then  diseased,  it 
has  infected  or  inoculated  others  —  and  these  in  turn  scatter 
the  contagion,  before  they  are  cured.  There  is  not  a  particle 
of  doubt — nay,  I  know,  by  repeated  observation,  that  a  sheep 
once  entirely  cured  may  again  contract  the  disease,  and  thus 
the  malady  performs  a  perpetual  circuit  in  the  flock.  Fortu- 
nately, however,  the  susceptibility  to  contract  the  disease 
diminishes,  according  to  my  observation,  with  every  succeeding 
attack;  and  fortunately  also,  as  already  stated,  succeeding 
attacks,  other  things  being  equal,  become  less  and  less 
virulent. 

16 


362  HOOF-KOT. 

"What  course,  then,  shall  be  pursued?  Shall  the  flock- 
master  sacrifice  his  sheep  —  shall  he  take  the  ordinary  half- 
way course  —  or  shall  he  expend  more  on  the  sheep  than  they 
are  worth  in  attempting  to  cure  them  ?  Neither.  The  course 
I  would  advise  him  to  pursue,  will  appear  as  I  detail  the 
experiments  I  have  made. 

Treatment. —  The  preparation  of  the  foot  is  a  subject  of 
no  dispute,  but  the  labor  can  be  prodigiously  economized  by 
attention  to  a  few  not  very  commonly  observed  particulars. 
Sheep  should  be  yarded  for  the  operation  immediately  after 
a  rain,  if  practicable,  as  then  the  hoofs  can  be  readily  cut. 
In  a  dry  time,  and  after  a  night  which  has  left  no  dew  on  the 
grass,  their  hoofs  are  almost  as  tough  as  horn.  They  must 
be  driven  through  no  mud,  or  soft  dung,  on  their  way  to  the 
yard,  which  doubles  the  labor  of  cleaning  their  feet.  The 
yard  must  be  small,  so  they  can  be  easily  caught,  and  it  must 
be  kept  well  littered  down,  so  they  shall  not  fill  their  feet 
with  their  own  manure.  If  the  straw  is  wetted,  their  hoofs 
will  not  of  course  dry  and  harden  as  rapidly  as  in  dry  straw. 
Could  the  yard  be  built  over  a  shallow,  gravelly-bottomed 
brook,*  it  would  be  an  admirable  arrangement.  The  hoofs 
would  be  kept  so  soft  that  the  greatest  and  most  unpleasant 
part  of  the  labor,  as  ordinarily  performed,  would  in  a  great 
measure  be  saved ;  and  they  would  be  kept  free  from  that 
dung  which,  by  any  other  arrangement,  will  more  or  less  get 
into  their  feet. 

The  principal  operator  or  foreman  seats  himself  in  a  chair — 
a  couple  of  good  sharp  knives,  (one  at  least  a  thin  and  narrow 
one,)  a  whetstone,  the  powerful  toe-nippers  (figured  on  page 
169,)  a  bucket  of  water  with  a  couple  of  linen  rags  in  it,  and 
such  medicines  as  he  chooses  to  employ,  within  his  reach. 
The  assistant  catches  a  sheep  and  lays  it  partly  on  its  back 
and  rump,  between  the  legs  of  the  foreman,  the  head  coming 
up  about  to  his  middle.  The  assistant  then  kneels  on  some 
straw,  or  seats  himself  on  a  low  stool  at  the  hinder  extremity 
of  the  sheep.  If  the  hoofs  are  long,  and  especially  if  they 
are  dry  and  tough,  the  assistant  presents  each  foot  to  the 
foreman,  who  shortens  the  hoof  Avith  the  toe-nippers.  If 
there  is  any  filth  between  the  toes,  each  man,  after  first  using 
a  stick,  takes  his  rag  from  the  bucket  of  water,  draws  it 
between  the  toes  and  rinses  it,  until  the  filth  is  removed. 
Each  then  seizes  his  knife,  and  the  process  of  paring  away 

*  A  place  might  be  prepared  in  any  little  brook  by  graveling  or  by  laying,  a  floor 
of  boards  on  the  bottom. 


HOOF-KOT.  363 

the  horn  commences.  And  on,  the  effectual  performance  of 
this,  all  else  depends. 

If  the  disease  is  in  the  first  stage  —  i.  e.,  if  there  is  merely 
an  erosion  and  ulceration  of  the  cuticle  and  flesh  in  the  cleft 
above  the  walls  of  the  hoof,  no  paring  is  necessary.  But 
if  ulceration  has  established  itself  between  the  hoof  and  the 
fleshy  sole,  the  ulcerated  parts,  be  they  more  or  less  extensive, 
must  be  entirely  denuded  of  their  horny  covering,  cost  what  it 
may  of  time  and  care.  It  is  better  not  to  wound  the  sole  so 
as  to  cause  it  to  bleed  freely,  as  the  running  blood  will  wash 
off"  the  subsequent  applications ;  but  no  fear  of  wounding  the 
sole  must  prevent  a  full  compliance  with  the  rule  above  laid 
down.  At  worst,  the  blood  can  soon  be  staunched,  however 
freely  it  flows,  by  a  few  touches  of  a  caustic  —  say  butyr  of 
antimony. 

If  the  foot  is  in  the  third  stage — a  mass  of  rottenness  and 
filled  with  maggots  —  the  maggots  should  first  be  killed  by 
spirits  of  turpentine,  or  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  (see 
page  190)  or  other  equally  efficient  application.  It  can  be 
most  conveniently  used  from  a  bottle  having  a  quill  through 
the  cork.  By  continuing  to  remove  the  dead  maggots  with 
a  stick,  and  to  expose  and  kill  the  deeper  lodged  ones,  all  can 
be  extirpated.  Every  particle  of  loose  horn  should  then  be 
removed,  though  it  take  the  entire  hoof,  —  and  it  frequently 
does  take  the  entire  hoof  at  an  advanced  stage  of  the  disease. 
The  foot  should  be  cleansed  if  necessary  with  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  a  pound  of  the  chloride 
to  n,  gallon  of  water.*  If  this  is  not  at  hand,  plunging  the 
foot  repeatedly  in  water,  just  shoi't  of  scalding  hot,  will 
answer  the  purpose.  And  now  comes  the  important  question, 
what  constitutes  the  best  remedy? 

The  recipes  for  its  cure  are  innumerable.  One  much  used 
in  New  England  at  an  early  day,  under  the  recommendation 
of  "  Consul  Jarvis,"  f  was  compounded  as  follows : 

1.  Roman  or  blue  vitriol,  pulverized  very  fine,  three  parts, 
with   one  part  of  white  lead,  mixed  into  a  thin  paste  with 
linseed  oil. 

2.  Another  recipe,  also  much    used  in  New  England,  is 

*  Mr.  Youatt  recommends  this,  and  says  it  "  will  remove  the  fetor  and  tendency 
to  sloughing  and  mortification  which  are  the  too  frequent  attendants  on  foot-rot."  I 
never  yet  saw  mortification  (gangrene)  of  the  foot  result  from  this  disease.  Mr. 
Youatt's  directions  as  to  treatment  are  far  more  satisfactory  than  are  his  statements  of 
the  causes  and  symptoms  of  this  malady. 

t  The  Hon.  William  Jarvis  is  universally  known  under  this  appellation  in  New 
England. 


364  HOOP -EOT. 

as  follows: — 4  ounces  blue  vitriol,  2  oz.  verdigris  to  a  junk 
bottle  of  urine. 

3.  Spirits  of  turpentine,  tar  and  verdigris,  in  equal  parts. 

4.  The   following  recipe   used    to   be  hawked   about  the 
country  at  the  price  of  $5,  the  purchaser  having  promised 
inviolable  secrecy : — 3  quarts  alcohol,  1  pint  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, 1  pint  of  strong  vinegar,   1   Ib.   of  blue  vitriol,  1   Ib.  of 
copperas,   l£  Ibs.  verdigris,    1    Ib.   alum,    1  Ib.  of  saltpetre, 
pounded  fine ;  mix  in  a  close  bottle,  shake  every  day,  and  let 
it  stand  six  or  eight  days  before  using:  also  mix   2  Ibs.  of 
honey  and   2   quarts    tar    and   apply  it   after  the   previous 
compound.     "  Two  applications  to  entirely  remove  disease." 

5.  A  saturated  solution  of  blue  vitriol  applied  through  a 
quill  in  a   cork  —  and  finely  pulverized  vitriol  dusted  over 
the  parts  when  wet.     This  was  the  favorite  remedy  of  the 
farmers  in  the  region  where  I  reside,  twenty-five  years  ago. 

6.  The  most  common  and  popular  remedy  now  used  in 
Central  New  York  is : —  1   Ib.  blue  vitriol ;  £  Ib.  (with  some 
£  Ib.)  verdigris ;  1  pint  of  linseed  oil ;  1  quart  of  tar.     The 
vitriol  and  verdigris  are  pulverized  very  fine,  and  many  per- 
sons before  adding   the  tar,   grind   the    mixture    through   a 
paint  mill.     Some  use  a  decoction  of  tobacco  boiled    until 
thick,  in  the  place  of  oil. 

7.  The   remedy   recommended  by   Mr.  James   Hogg,   of 
Scotland,  is  turpentine  2  ounces,  sulphuric  acid  2  drachms  — 
to  be  well  mixed  before  it  is  used  and  applied  freely  to  the 
diseased  part. 

8.  Mr.  Spconer  thinks  1  oz.  of  olive  oil  and  double  the 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  an   improvement  on  the   above. 
He  says  "  the  acid  must  be  mixed  carefully  with  turpentine, 
as  considerable  inflammation  immediately  takes  place."     He 
remarks  that  he  has  used  all  the  powerful  acids  with  success, 
and  that  he   imagines   it   of  but   little   consequence   which 
caustic  is  employed,  provided  it  be  of  sufficient  strength. 

9.  Mr.  Youatt  recommends  washing  the  foot  in  a  strong 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  and  then  resorting  to  "  muriate 
or  butyr  of  antimony."     The  foot  to  be  dressed  every  day, 
and  each  new  separation  of  horn  removed,  and  every  portion 
of  fungus  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  caustic,  and  a  little 
clean  tow  to  be  wrapped  round  the  foot  and  bound  tightly 
down  with  tape,  if  the  foot  is  principally  stripped  of  its  horn. 

10.  The  following  is  the  English  "Halt  Receipt."     It  is 
given  in  the  prize  essay  of  Mr.  Robert   Smith,   already  on 
numerous  occasions  cited ;  and  Mr.  Smith  says  he  has  found 


HOOF-KOT.  365 

this  remedy  "  invaluable  both  in  staying  its  progress,  and 
curing  the  disease :" — 1  oz.  corrosive  sublimate ;  1  oz.  blue 
vitriol ;  1  oz.  spirits  of  salts  ;  '1  oz.  verdigris  ;  1  oz.  horse 
turpentine  ;  1  oz.  oil  of  vitriol ;  £  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine  • 
and  4  ozs.  sheep  ointment.  (The  last  I  presume  means 
mercurial  ointment.)  "To  be  well  mized  when  prepared, 
and  kept  tied  down  [in  a  bottle]  when  not  in  use." 

Mr.  Smith  also  says: — "When  the  foot  has  become  much 
diseased  from  neglect,  it  should  be  placed  in  an  oil -cake 
poultice  for  twelve  hours  ;  then  washed  clean  with  warm 
water,  and  the  poultice  renewed  again  in  twelve  hours  more; 
then  to  be  again  washed,  and  the  diseased  parts  probed  to 
the  bottom  and  dressed ;  then  to  be  tied  up  in  common  tar 
for  twenty-four  hours,  and  renewed  when  necessary,  again 
applying  the  ointment.  Opening  medicine  will  materially 
assist  in  the  cure  of  obstinate  cases." 

Any  of  these  remedies,  and  fifty  more  that  might  be  com- 
pounded, simply  by  combining  caustics,  stimulants,  etc.,  in 
different  forms  and  proportions,  will  prove  sufficient  for  the 
extirpation  of  hoof- rot,  with  proper  preparatory  and  subse- 
quent treatment.  On  these  last,  beyond  all  question,  principally 
depends  the  comparative  success  of  the  applications. 

First.  No  external  remedy  can  succeed  in  this  malady 
unless  it  comes  in  contact  with  all  the  diseased  parts  of  the 
foot. — for  if  such  part,  however  small,  is  unreached,  the 
unhealthy  and  ulcerous  action  is  perpetuated  in  it,  and  it  grad- 
ually spreads  over  and  again  involves  the  surrounding  tissues. 
Therefore  every  portion  of  the  diseased  flesh  must  be 
denuded  of  horn,  filth,  dead  tissue,  pus,  and  every  other 
substance  which  can  prevent  the  application  from  actually 
touching  it,  and  producing  its  characteristic  effects  on  it. 

Second.  The  application  must  be  kept  in  contact  with  the 
diseased  surfaces  long  enough  to  exert  its  proper  remedial 
influence.  If  removed,  by  any  means,  befoi-e  this  is  accom- 
plished, it  must  necessarily  proportionably  fail  in  its  effects. 

The  preparation  of  the  foot,  then,  requires  no  mean  skill. 
The  tools  must  be  sharp,  the  movements  of  the  operator 
careful  and  deliberate.  As  he  shaves  down  near  the  quick,  he 
must  cut  thinner  and  thinner,  and  with  more  and  more  care, 
or  else  he  will  either  fail  to  remove  the  horn  exactly  far  enough, 
or  he  will  cut  into  the  fleshy  sole  and  cause  a  rapid  flow 
of  blood.  I  have  already  remarked  that  the  blood  can  be 
staunched  by  caustics  —  but  they  coagulate  it  on  the  surface 
in  a  mass  which  requires  removal  before  the  application  of 


366  HOOF -ROT. 

remedies,  and  in  the  process  of  its  removal  the  blood  is  very 
frequently  set  flowing  again,  and  this  sometimes  several 
times  follows  the  application  of  the  caustic.  *  Cutting  down 
to  the  crack  between  the  horny  and  fleshy  sole,  is  not  enough. 
The  operator  must  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  ulceration 
between  the  outside  horny  walls  and  the  fleshy  part  of  the  foot 
— or  at  the  toe  —  or  whether  there  is  even  a  rudiment  of  an 
unreached  sinus  or  cavity  in  any  part  of  the  foot  where  the 
ulceration  has  penetrated  or  is  beginning  to  penetrate.  The 
practiced  eye  decides  these  questions  rapidly  from  the 
characteristic  appearances,  without  the  removal  of  unneces- 
sary horn:  but  the  new  beginner  must  feel  his  way  along 
cautiously,  removing  more  horn  where  there  is  doubt, 
but  so  removing  it  that  he  will  not  unnecessarily  cause  an 
effusion  of  blood,  or  uncover  the  healthy  quick,  or  dis- 
arrange the  proper  bearing  of  the  foot.  If  the  foot  is  in 
the  third-  state,  the  removal  of  the  maggots,  the  cleaning  of 
the  ulcers,  the  proper  excision  of  the  dead  tissues,  etc., 
require  much  time  —  sometimes  more  than  half  an  hour  to 
each  foot.  The  most  experienced  operator  cannot  perform 
such  processes  in  a  hurry — the  inexperienced  one  must 
perform  them  slowly,  or  all  the  time  saved  will  be  lost,  twenty 
times  over,  in  having  to  repeat  them  for  an  indefinite  number 
of  times. 

English  and  Continental  modes  of  treatment — the  constant 
separation  of  the  infected — daily  dressings — poultices  changed 
every  twelve  hours,  with  intermediate  washings,  probings, 
etc.,  as  recommended  by  Mr.  Smith — bandages — cloth  boots 
— cloth  boots  with  leather  soles,f  &c.,  <fcc.,  would  cost  more 
than  the  sheep  would  be  worth  after  they  were  cured,  in 
this  country  of  high  and  scarce  labor ;  and,  in  point  of  fact, 
in  most  regions,  in  the  busy  period  of  haying  and  harvesting 
when  hoof-rot  is  at  its  height,  the  necessary  labor  could  not 
be  commanded  at  any  cost.  And  yet  if  that  labor  could  be 
obtained,  the  cost  of  it  would  not  much  exceed,  in  the  long 
run,  the  aggregate  cost  of  the  labor  actually  devoted 
to  the  same  end.  The  foreign  practitioner  promptly  cures 
the  malady.  The  American  farmer,  who  has  from  one  to  two 
hundred  infected  sheep,  during  the  first  year  when  the  disease 
is  violent,  drives  them  into  a  stable — a  small  one  so  they  can 
be  caught  easily — once  in  ten  days  or  a  fortnight.  An  unoccu- 

*  I  remember  to  have  seen  these  recommended  by  some  Continental  Veteri- 
narian whose  name  I  can  not  now  recall. 

t  The  toe  vein  bleeds  very  freely,  and  it  often  requires  some  time  and  trouble 
to  staunch  it. 


HOOF  -  KOT.  367 

died  afternoon — generally  a  rainy  one,  when  nothing  else 
can  be  done — is  selected.  Possibly  a  little  straw  is  put  on  the 
floor  of  the  stable  at  first — but  in  half  an  hour  every  foot  is 
full  of  soft  dung.  The  farmer,  his  hired  man,  and  perhaps  a 
boy  or  two,  sit  down  to  the  task.  Each  is  armed  with  a 
thick,  broad-bladed,  dull  "jack-knife."  The  whole  party 
then  proceed  literally  to  "  cut  and  sear !"  Some  of  the  feet 
are  cut  down  deeply  into  the  quick,  so  that  blood  gushes 
from  them  in  streams — others,  which  have  too  tough  hoofs, 
have  them  left  half  an  inch  thick  at  the  sole — covering  up, 
very  likely,  rapidly  developing  ulcers.  Blood  and  dung  and 
"  medicine"  are  left  applied  in  about  equal  proportions  to  each 
foot.  To  crown  the  whole  proceeding,  the  sheep  are  turned 
out  as  fast  as  "  doctored"  into  the  rain,  or  into  wet  grass,  so 
that  in  ten  minutes'  time  not  a  trace  of  the  remedy  applied 
remains  on  the  foot.  In  such  flocks  the  disease  is  barely 
kept  at  bay :  it  is  never  cured.  The  second  and  third  year 
the  "  doctorings"  become  less  and  less  frequent  —  but  they 
must  be  resorted  to  occasionally,  perpetually,  or  some  of  the 
sheep  will  get  down  on  their  knees.  The  farmer  always  finds 
bitter  fault  with  the  "  medicine."  He  gets  a  new  kind — with 
more  ingredients* — and  tries  again.  But  he  never  finds  the 
right  one ! 

The  above  picture  is,  doubtless,  an  extreme  one — but  do 
we  not  all  constantly  witness  more  or  less  near  practical 
approximations  to  it  ?  The  separation  of  the  sheep,  poultic- 
ing, inclosing  of  the  foot,  &c.,  I  believe  to  be  unnecessary — 
but  the  feet  must  be  well  prepared,  and  the  sheep  must  be  kept 
out  of  the  rain,  or  grass  wetted  by  rain  or  dew,  for  twenty- 
four  or  thirty-six  hours  afterward  —  the  longer  the  better. 
Without  this  the  most  careful  preparation  of  the  foot  and 
the  best  remedies  cannot  be  made  effectual.  It  is  true  that 
out-door  moisture  will  not  prevent  the  escharotic  effects  of 
powerful  caustics,  which  do  that  portion  of  their  work  almost 
at  oncef — but  these  are  not  beneficially  applied  in  ordinary 
cases ;  and  when  properly  applied  I  am  not  prepared  to  say 
what  would  be  the  effects  of  the  immediate  and  long  continued 

*  In  this  particular  Mr.  Robert  Smith's  English  "  halt  receipt,"  is  a  pattern !  If 
such  a  jumble  of  ingredients,  fortunately,  do  not  chance  to  counteract  each  other,  no 
well  informed  man  ought  for  a  moment  to  suppose  there  can  be  any  utility  in  com- 
pounding so  many  articles  together.  This  remedy  I  doubt  not  is  a  good  one,  as  a 
whole,—  but  it  does,  in  my  opinion,  contain  some  substances  which  neutralize  each 
other's  medicinal  properties ! 

t  I  should  consider  that  moisture  highly  beneficial  in  diluting  those  powerful  and 
deeply  corroding  caustics  which  are  sometimes  profusely  applied  to  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  toes  and  in  the  cleft  between  them— sucU  as  aqua-fortis  and  oil  of  vitriol. 


368  HOOP -EOT. 

exposure  of  the  unhealthy  and  cauterized  surfaces  to  water. 
I  venture  to  say  that  effect  would  not  be  auspicious.  In 
the  case  of  milder  applications,  which  do  not  immediately  cau- 
terize— and  from  which  different  and  less  instantaneous  effects 
are  expected,  as,  for  instance,  from  blue  vitriol — the  immediate 
and  continued  contact  of  water  washes  them  off  almost  before 
they  begin  to  exert  their  remedial  effects.  It  is  to  prevent 
this  that  oil  and  tar  are  made  portions  of  some  of  the 
preceding  prescriptions.  They  will  do  some  good  in  this 
way  after  they  dry  on  the  surface  of  the  flesh ;  but  they  are 
wholly  inadequate  to  the  end,  if  the  sheep  is  turned  on  wet 
grass  immediately  after  their  application.  The  best  place  to 
put  sheep  after  applying  the  remedies  to  their  feet,  is  on  the 
naked  floors  of  stables — scattering  them  over  as  much  surface 
as  practicable,  so  that  there  shall  be  as  little  accumulation  of 
manure  as  possible  under  foot.  Straw,  especially  if  fresh 
littered  down,  absorbs  or  rubs  off  the  moist  substances 
which  have  been  applied  to  their  feet.  The  bottoms  of  the 
feet  are  soon  thus  cleaned  off.  A  boy  should  go  round 
with  a  shovel,  until  night,  taking  up  the  dung  as  fast  as 
dropped.  The  sheep  should  be  kept  in  the  stables  over  the 
first  night,  and  not  let  out  the  next  day  until  the  dew  is  off 
the  grass :  then  they  should  be  turned  on  the  most  closely 
cropped  grass  on  the  farm.  It  well  pays  for  the  trouble  to 
put  them  in  the  stables  the  second  night  before  the  dew  falls, 
and  to  keep  them,  as  before,  until  it  is  dried  off  the  next  day. 

I  have  never  found  that  for  moderate  cases  of  hoof-rot  — 
the  worst  ones  which  are  allowed  to  occur  in  well  managed 
HOCKS  —  that  there  is,  in  reality,  any  possible  beneficial 
addition  to  mere  blue  vitriol,  as  a  remedy,  if  it  is  applied  in 
the  most  effective  way.  Twice  I  have  cured  a  diseased  flock 
by  one  application  of  it— and  I  never  heard  of  it  being  done 
in  any  other  way,  or,  indeed,  on  any  other  occasions.  The 
following  paragraph  is  from  my  "  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the 
South,"  published  in  1848  : 

"  I  had  a  flock  of  sheep  a  few  years  since  that  were  in  the 
second  season  of  the  disease.  They  had  been  but  little 
looked  to  during  the  summer,  and  as  cold  weather  was  setting 
in  many  of  them  were  considerably  lame  —  some  of  them 
quite  so.  The  snow  fell  and  they  were  brought  into  the 
yards,  limping,  and  hobbling  about  deplorably.  This  sight, 
so  digraceful  to  me  as  a  farmer,  roused  me  into  activity. 
I  bought  a  quantity  of  blue  vitriol  —  made  the  necessary 
arrangements  —  and  once  more  took  the  chair  as  principal 


HOOF-KOT.  369 

operator.  Never  were  the  feet  of  a  flock  more  thoroughly 
pared.  ^Into  a  large  washing  tub,  in  which  two  sheep  could 
stand  conveniently,  I  poured  a  saturated  solution  of  blue 
vitriol  and  water,  as  hot  as  could  be  endured  by  the  hand 
even  for  a  moment.  The  liquid  was  about  four  inches  deep 
on  the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  was  kept  at  about  that  depth 
by  frequent  additions  of  the  hot  solution.  As  soon  as  a  sheep's 
feet  were  pared,  it  was  placed  in  the  tub  and  held  there  by  the 
neck,  by  an  assistant.  A  second  one  was  prepared  and  placed 
beside  it.  When  the  third  one  was  ready,  the  first  was  taken 
out,  and  so  on.  Two  sheep  were  thus  constantly  in  the  tub, 
and  each  remained  in  it  about  ten*  minutes.  The  cure  was 
perfect.  There  was  not  a  lame  sheep  in  the  flock  during  the 
winter  or  the  next  summer.  The  hot  liquid  penetrated  to 
every  cavity  of  the  foot,  and  doubtless  had  a  far  more  decisive 
effect  even  on  the  uncovered  ulcers,  than  would  have  been 
produced  by  merely  wetting  them.  Perhaps  the  lateness  of 
the  season  was  also  favorable,  as  in  cold  weather  the  ulcers  of 
ordinary  virulence  discharge  no  matter  to  innoculate  the 
healthy  feet;  and  thus  at  the  time  of  applying  the  remedy 
there  are  no  cases  where  there  has  been  innoculation  not  yet 
followed  by  the  actual  disease.  I  think  that  the  vitriol 
required  for  the  above  one  hundred  sheep  was  about  twelve 
pounds,  and  that  it  cost  me  fifteen  cents  per  pound.  The 
account  then  would  stand  thus: — 12  Ibs.  of  vitriol  at  15  cents, 
$1.80;  labor  of  3  men  one  day  each,  $2.25;  total  $4.05 — or 
about  four  cents  per  sheep." 

Many  years  after  the  above  took  place,  I  treated  a  flock  of 
diseased  lambs  in  the  same  way  —  except  that  they  were  put 
into  a  larger  tub  which  would  hold  five  of  them,  so  that  each 
stood  in  the  hot  fluid  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes : 
and  again  the  cure  was  perfect.  They  too  were  handled  just 
as  winter  was  setting  in ;  were  wintered  alone ;  and  were 
turned  early  in  the  spring  into  a  flock  of  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  which  had  never  had  hoof-  rot. 

I  believe  the  same  remedy  administered  hi  the  same  way 
would  be  the  cheapest  f  and  most  effectual  one  known  for 
large  flocks ;  and  if  I  had  to  go  through  another  war  with 
the  hoof -rot,  I  would  construct  a  vat  which  would  hold  eight 
or  ten  sheep  —  perhaps  with  a  grate  over  the  fluid  to  prevent 
accidents  J  —  and  I  would  contrive  some  mode  to  keep  the 

*  This,  by  a  misprint,  was  published  five,  in  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South, 
t  Blue  vitriol  costs  more  than  formerly—  but  it  is  still  a  very  cheap  remedy  when 
bought  by  the  quantity. 

1  If  ten  sheep  were  put  in  a  vat  together,  the  attendant  might  have  some  difficulty 
16* 


370  HOOF -EOT. 

water  hot,  after  it  was  poured  into  the  vat.  And  if  the 
disease  was  in  its  new  and  malignant  stage,  I  might  keep 
every  sheep  half  an  hour  or  upwards  in  the  hot  liquor.  I  do 
not  aver  that  one  application  would  cure  all  cases  in  that 
stage,  but  I  judge  from  my  experience  that  it  would  be  more 
likely  to  do  it  than  any  other  application  I  ever  heard  of. 

When  the  disease  is  in  what  I  have  termed  the  third 
stage  —  when  a  decomposition  of  the  tissues  has  taken  place 
and  a  powerful  escharotic  is  requisite  to  remove  the  dead 
structures  and  their  ulcerous  accompaniments  —  there  is,  as 
Mr.  Youatt  observes,  no  application  comparable  with  chloride 
or  buytr  of  antimony.  I  have  used  nitric,  sulphuric  and 
muriatic  acid ;  and  instead  of  finding,  with  Mr.  Spooner,  that 
it  "  is  of  little  consequence  which  caustic  is  employed,  pro- 
vided it  is  of  sufficient  strength,"*  I  have  found  all  the 
latter  to  possess  too  much  "  strength  "  —  or,  at  least,  to  be  too 
deeply  corrosive  when  applied  to  flesh ;  while  the  butyr  of 
antimony  combines  so  readily  with  the  fluids  in  the  parts,  that 
it  very  soon  loses  its  caustic  effects.  It  therefore,  to  a  very 
considerable  degree,  possesses  the  admirable  property  of 
nitrate  of  silver  (too  expensive  a  material  to  be  used  in  hoof- 
rot)  of  acting  purely  as  a  superficial  caustic,  so  that  an  eschar 
is  formed  protecting  the  parts  beneath,  and  promoting  a  new 
and  healthy  action.  I  much  prefer  muriatic  acid  to  either 
nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  when  butyr  of  antimony  is  not  to  be 
obtained. 

I  have  no  space  to  discuss  the  questions  whether  hoof- rot 
is  contagious  —  and  whether  it  also  originates  without 
contagion.  On  the  first  point  I  will  only  say  that  I  should 
esteem  that  man  out  of  his  senses  who,  after  having  very 
extended  opportunities  for  observing  its  origin  and  for  tracing 
its  history  in  any  particular  region,  should  doubt  its  direct, 
decided  and  (after  sufficient  exposure  of  healthy  animals  to  its 
virus,f)  uniform  contagiousness.  Whether  it  is  generated  by 

occasionally,  in  keeping  them  all  on  their  feet.  Lying  down  or  falling  down  in  the 
water  would  produce  no  catastrophe  :  it  would  not  harm  the  sheep  a  particle  —  but  it 
would  dye  it  a  light  blue,  and  the  liquor  would  be  unnecessarily  wasted. 

*  Spooner  on  Sheep,  p.  441. 

tl  am  inclined  to  believe  that  it  is  not  communicated  by  effluvium— by  infection— 
or  even  necessarily  by  contact  between  diseased  and  undiseased  animals.  I  think  it 
is  chiefly,  if  not  entirely  communicated  by  a  species  of  inoculation,  if  I  may  so  term 
it — by  the  virus  of  a  diseased  foot  being  brought  in  contact  with  the  inner  portion  of 
an  undiseased  foot.  If  this  is  a  correct  hypothesis,  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  the 
malady  would  not  be  very  likely  to  be  communicated  in  all  its  stages ;  and  that  the 
rapidity  of  its  transmission  at  all  periods  would  depend  somewhat  upon  chance. 
Sheep  take  it  far  most  rapidly  by  being  turned  into  pastures  where  diseased  sheep 
have  been  some  time  running,  and  where  a  thousand  blades  of  grass  and  other  sub- 
stances liable  to  come  in  contact  with  the  inner  portion  of  the  foot,  are  charged  with 
a  quantity  of  the  virus. 


HOOF -ROT.  371 

dirt,  moisture,  etc.,  without  contagion,  may  perhaps  be  more 
doubtful.  Some  intelligent  farmers  take  the  afifrmative  of 
this  question.  In  a  letter  I  have  just  received  from  Mr. 
W.  F.  Greer,  of  Painesville,  Ohio,  he  says: — "When  in 
Lorain  county  (Ohio)  in  April  last,  I  was  told  by  many  of 
the  sheep  men  there  that  hoof -rot  appears  wherever  sheep 
are  kept  in  tall,  rank  feed  —  in  the  form  of  fouls  at  first. 
They  were  all  of  the  opinion  that  it  does  appear  sponta- 
neously, and  cited  numerous  instances  to  prove  their  theory." 
Different  countries  and  climates  may  probably  be  subject 
to  the  appearance  of  the  disease  under  different  circumstances. 
It  is  the  prevailing  view  among  English  veterinary  writers 
that  hoof-rot  frequently  originates  without  contagion  in  Great 
Britain,  though  this  opinion  is  not  without  its  able  dissentients. 
I  have  repeatedly  known  it  to  commence  in  that  portion  of 
the  United  States  where  I  reside,  without  the  owner  of  the 
sheep  being  able  to  trace  it  to  any  contagion.  I  have  at 
page  165  mentioned  two  cases  where  my  own  sheep  contracted 
it  from  flocks  brought  into  contact  with  them  accidentally, 
and  for  but  a  short  period ;  and  any  one  who  reads  the  facts 
in  those  cases  will  readily  see  that  the  removal  of  the  diseased 
sheep  which  communicated  the  malady,  might  readily  have 
taken  place  without  my  ever  being  informed  of  the  circum- 
stances ;  and  then  I  might  have  imagined  that  it  was  caused 
by  "  tall  feed."  But  I  never  yet  have  heard  of  a  case  of 
fouls  becoming  hoof-rot,  or  of  the  latter  disease  occurring 
"spontaneously"  in  any  new  region  where  hoof-rot  had 
never  been  previously  introduced  by  diseased  sheep,  or  where 
it  was  not  at  the  time  prevailing  in  a  greater  or  less  degree 
in  some  flock  in  the  vicinity,  or  within  a  few  miles.  And  we 
all  know  that  there  are  very  many  regions  where  it  has 
never  been  heard  of  among  the  sheep,  though  the  grass  is 
as  tall,  and  all  the  other  supposed  exciting  causes,  except 
contagion,  are  fully  equal. 


CHAPTER 

OTHER  DISEASES!  WOUNDS,   ETO. 

THE      EOT SCROFULA  —  HEREDITARY      DISEASES  —  CUTS 

LACERATED   AND   CONTUSED   WOUNDS — PUNCTURED  WOUJTDS 

DOG  BITES — POISONED   WOUNDS SPRAINS — BRUISES 

ABSCESS. 

THE  ROT. —  As  already  remarked,  I  have  never  witnessed 
an  instance  of  the  rot  in  the  United  States  ;  although  I  have 
repeatedly  seen  sheep  laboring  under  diseases  called  by  that 
name.  My  opinion  is  that  it  has  never  appeared,  at  least,  in 
our  Northern  States.  Persons  of  much  intelligence,  residing 
in  some  of  the  Western  and  South-western  States  believe 
they  have  recognized  it ;  but  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen 
any  of  their  expressions  to  that  effect  properly  supported  by 
the  published  results  of  post-mortem  examinations. 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  thus  given  by  Mr. 
Spooner :  —  "  The  first  symptoms  attending  this  disease  are 
by  no  means  strongly  marked;  there  is  no  loss  of  condition,  but 
rather  apparently  the  contrary;  indeed,  sheep  intended  for  the 
butcher  have  been  purposely  cothed  or  rotted  in  order  to 
increase  their  fattening  properties  for  a  few  weeks,  a  practice 
which  was  adopted  by  the  celebrated  Bakewell.  A  want  of 
liveliness  and  paleness  of  the  membranes  generally  may  be 
considered  as  the  first  symptoms  of  the  disease,  to  which  may 
be  added  a  yellowness  of  the  caruncle  at  the  corner  of  the 
eye.  Dr.  Harrison  observes,  'when  in  warm,  sultry  or  rainy 
weather,  sheep  that  are  grazing  on  low  and  moist  lands  feed 
rapidly,  and  some  of  them  die  suddenly,  there  is  fear  that  they 
have  contracted  the  rot.'  This  suspicion  will  be  further 
increased  if,  a  few  weeks  afterward,  the  sheep  begin  to  shrink 
and  become  flaccid  about  the  loins.  By  pressure  about  the 
hips  at  this  time  a  crackling  is  perceptible  now  or  soon  after- 
ward, the  countenance  looks  pale,  and  upon  parting  the  fleece 
the  skin  is  found  to  have  changed  its  vermillion  tint  for  a  pale 


THE    ROT.  «  373 

red,  and  the  wool  Is  easily  separated  from  the  pelt ;  and  as 
the  disorder  advances  the  skin  becomes  dappled  with  yellow 
or  black  spots.  To  these  symptoms  succeed  increased  dull- 
ness, loss  of  condition,  greater  paleness  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  the  eyelids  becoming  almost  white  and  afterward 
yellow.  This  yellowness  extends  to  other  parts  of  the  body, 
and  a  watery  fluid  appears  under  the  skin,  which  becomes 
loose  and  flabby,  the  wool  coming  off"  readily.  The  symptoms 
of  dropsy  often  extend  over  the  body,  and  sometimes  the 
sheep  becomes  checkered,  as  it  is  termed  —  a  large  swelling 
forms  under  the  jaw,  which,  from  the  appearances  of  the 
fluid  it  contains,  is  in  some  places  called  the  watery  poke. 
The  duration  of  the  disease  is  uncertain ;  the  animal  occasion- 
ally dies  shortly  after  becoming  aifected,  but  more  frequently 
it  extends  to  from  three  to  six  months,  the  sheep  gradually 
losing  flesh  and  pining  away,  particularly  if,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  an  obstinate  purging  supei'venes." 

Mr.  Youatt  thus  describes  the  post-mortem  appearances  : 
"  When  a  rotted  sheep  is  examined  after  death,  the  whole 
cellular  tissue  is  found  to  be  infiltrated,  and  a  yellow  serous 
fluid  everywhere  follows  the  knife.  The  muscles  are  soft  and 
flabby  : i  they  have  the  appearance  of  being  macerated.  The 
kidneys  are  pale,  flaccid  and  infiltrated.  The  mesenteric 
glands  enlarged,  and  engorged  with  yellow  serous  fluid.  The 
belly  is  frequently  filled  with  water  or  purulent  matter ;  the 
peritoneum  is  everywhere  thickened,  and  the  bowels  adhere 
together  by  means  of  an  unnatural  growth.  The  heart  is 
enlarged  and  softened,  and  the  lungs  are  filled  with  tubercles. 
The  principal  alterations  of  structure  are  in  the  liver.  It  is 
pale,  livid,  and  broken  down  Avith  the  slightest  pressure  ;  and 
on  being  boiled  it  will  almost  dissolve  away.  When  the  liver 
is  not  pale,  it  is  'often  curiously  spotted.  In  some  cases  it  is 
speckled  like  the  back  of  a  toad.  Nevertheless,  some  parts  of 
it  are  hard  and  schirrous;  others  are  ulcerated,  and  the 
biliary  ducts  are  filled  with  flukes.  Here  is  the  decided  seat 
of  disease,  and  it  is  here  that  the  nature  of  the  malady  is  to  be 
learned.  It  is  inflammation  of  the  liver.  *  *  *  The  liver 
"attracts  the  principal  attention  of  the  examiner  ;  it  displays 
the  evident  effects  of  acute  and  destructive  inflammation  ;  and 
still  more  plainly  the  ravages  of  the  parasite  with  whi-ch  its 
ducts  are  crowded.  Here  is  plainly  the  original  seat  of  the 
disease — the  center  whence  a  destructive  influence  spreads  on 
every  side.  *  *  *  The  Fluke — the  Fasclola  of  LinnaBus 
—  the  Distoma  hepaticum  of  Rhodolphi — the  Planaria  ol 


374  THE    EOT. 

Goese — is  found  in  the  biliary  ducts  of  the  sheep,  the  goat,  the 
deer,  the  ox,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  hog,  the  dog,  the  rabbit,  the 
guinea-pig,  and  various  other  animals,  and  even  in  the  human 
being.  It  is  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  in  length,  and  from  one -third  to  half  an  inch  in 
greatest  breadth. 

"  Figs.  1  and  3  represent  this  parasite  of  its  usual  size  and 
appearance,  and  its  resemblance  to  a  minute  sole,  divested  of 
its  fins,  is  very  striking.  The  head  is  of  a  pointed  form,  round 
above  and  flat  beneath  ;  and  the  mouth  opens  laterally  instead 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 

of  vertically.  There  are  no  barbs  or  tentacula?,  as  described 
by  some  authors.  The  eyes  are  placed  on  the  most  prominent 
part  of  the  head,  and  are  very  singularly  constructed  (fig.  2). 
They  have  the  bony  ring  of  the  bird.  *  *  *  The  anasta- 
moses  of  the  blood  vessels  which  ramify  over  the  head  are 
plainly  seen  through  a  tolerable  microscope.  The  circulating 
and  digestive  organs  are  also  evident,  and  are  seated  almost 
immediately  below  the  head.  The  situation  of  the  heart  is 
seen  in  fig.  1,  and  the  two  main  vessels  evidently  springing 
from  it,  and  extending  through  almost  the  whole  length  of 
the  fluke.  Smaller  blood-vessels,  if  so  they  may  be  called, 
ramify  from  them  on  either  side. 

"  In  the  belly,  if  so  it  may  be  called,  are  almost  invariably 
a  very  great  number  of  oval  particles,  hundreds  of  which, 
taken  together,  are  not  equal  in  bulk  to  a  grain  of  sand. 
They  are  of  a  pale  red  color,  and  are  supposed  to  be  the 
spawn  or  eggs  of  the  parasite.  *  *  * 

"There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  eggs  are  frequently 
received  in  the  food.  Having  been  discharged  with  the  dung, 
they  remain  on  the  grass  or  damp  spot  on  which  they  may 
fall,  retaining  their  vital  principle  for  an  indefinite  period  of . 
time.  *  *  *  They  find  not  always,  or  they  find  not  at  all, 
a  proper  nidus  in  the  places  in  which  they  are  deposited ;  but 
taken  up  with  the  food,  escaping  the  perils  of  rumination,  and 
threading  every  vessel  and  duct  until  they  arrive  at  the  biliary 
canal,  they  burst  from  their  shells,  and  grow,  and  probably 
multiply.  ***** 

"Leeuwenhoeck  says  that  he  has  taken  870  flukes  out  of  one 


THE   EOT.  375 

liver,  exclusive  of  those  that  were  cut  to  pieces  or  destroyed 
in  opening  the  various  ducts.  In  other  cases,  and  where  the 
sheep  have  died  of  the  rot,  there  were  not  found  more  than 
ten  or  twelve.  *  *  *  Then,  is  the  fluke  worm  the  cause 
or  the  effect  of  rot?  To  a  certain  degree  both.  They 
aggravate  the  disease  ;  they  perpetuate  a  state  of  irritability 
and  disorganization  which  must  necessarily  undermine  the 
strength  of  any  animal.  *  *  *  Notwithstanding  all  this, 
however,  if  the  fluke  follow  the  analogy  of  other  entoza  and 
parasites,  it  is  the  effect  and  not  the  cause  of  rot.  *  *  * 

"  The  rot  in  sheep  is  evidently  connected  with  the  soil  or 
state  of  the  pasture.  It  is  confined  to  wet  seasons,  or  to  the 
feeding  on  ground  moist  and  marshy  at  all  seasons.  It  has 
reference  to  the  evaporation  of  water,  and  to  the  presence 
and  decomposition  of  moist  vegetable  matter.  It  is  rarely  or 
almost  never  seen  on  dry  or  sandy  soils  and  in  dry  seasons  ; 
it  is  rarely  wanting  on  boggy  or  poachy  ground,  except  when 
that  ground  is  dried  by  the  heat  of  the  summer's  sun,  or 
completely  covered  by  the  winter's  rain.  On  the  same  farm 
there  are  certain  fields  on  which  no  sheep  can  be  turned  with 
.mpunity.  There  are  others  that  seldom  or  never  give  the 
rot.  The  soil  of  the  second  is  found  to  be  of  a  pervious  nature, 
on  which  wet  cannot  long  remain  —  the  first  takes  a  long 
time  to  dry,  or  is  rarely  or  never  so.  * 

"  Some  seasons  are  far  more  favorable  to  the  development 
of  the  rot  than  others,  and  there  is  no  manner  of  doubt  as  to 
the  character  of  those  seasons.  After  a  rainy  summer  or  a 
moist  autumn,  or  during  a  wet  winter,  the  rot  destroys  like  a 
pestilence.  A  return  and  a  continuance  of  dry  weather  mate- 
rially arrests  its  murderous  progress.  Most  of  the  sheep  that 
had  been  already  infected  die  ;  but  the  number  of  those  that 
are  lost  soon  begins  to  be  materially  diminished.  It  is,  there- 
fore sufficiently  plain  that  the  rot  depends  upon,  or  is  caused 
by,  the  existence  of  moisture.  A  rainy  season  and  a  tenacious 
soil  are  fruitful  or  inevitable  sources  of  it.  *  *  *  The 
mischief  is  effected  with  almost  incredible  rapidity." 

Mr.  Youatt  here  gives  various  instances  to  prove  that  rot 
is  engendered  in  a  few  hours  and  even  minutes.*  He  further 
says  : — "  It  is  an  old  observation  that  on  all  pasture  that  is  sus- 
pected to  be  unsound,  the  sheep  should  be  folded  early  in  the 
evening,  before  the  first  dews  begin  to  fall,  and  should  not  be 
released  from  the  fold  until  the  dew  is  partly  evaporated. 
*  *  *  Then  the  mode  of  prevention — that  with  which 

*  Youatt,  p.  453. 


376  THE    EOT. 

the  farmer  will  have  most  to  do,  for  the  sheep  having  become 
once  decidedly  rotten,  neither  medicine  nor  management  will 
have  much  power  in  arresting  the  evil — consists  in  altering 
the  character  of  as  much  of  the  dangerous  ground  as  he  can, 
and  keeping  his  sheep  from  those  pastures  which  defy  all  his 
attempts  to  improve  them.  *  *  *  If  all  unnecessary 
moisture  is  removed  from  the  soil,  or  if  the  access  of  air  is 
cut  off  by  the  flooding  of  the  pasture,  no  poisonous  gas  has 
existence,  and  the  sheep  continue  sound.  *  *  *  The 
account  of  the  treatment  of  rot  must,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
be  very  unsatisfactory." 

Mr.  Youatt  recommends  the  sale  of  sheep  to  the  butcher 
after  they  are  found  to  be  rotted !  To  give  what  may  be 
styled  the  butcher's  autopsy,  I  copy  his  remarks : — "  It  is 
one  of  the  characters  of  the  rot  to  hasten,  and  that  to  a 
strange  degree,  the  accumulation  of  flesh  and  fat.  Let  not 
the  farmer,  however,  push  this  experiment  too  far.  Let  him 
carefully  overlook  every  sheep  daily,  and  dispose  of  those 
which  cease  to  make  progress,  or  which  seem  beginning  to 
retrograde.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  meat  of  the 
rotted  sheep,  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disease,  is  not  like  that 
of  the  sound  one  ;  it  is  pale  and  not  so  firm ;  but  it  is  not 
unwholesome,  and  it  is  coveted  by  certain  epicures,  who, 
perhaps,  are  not  altogether  aware  of  the  real  state  of  the 
animal.  All  this  is  a  matter  of  calculation,  and  must  be  left 
to  the  owner  of  the  sheep ;  except  that,  if  the  breed  is  not  of 
very  considerable  value,  and  the  disease  has  not  proceeded  to 
emaciation  or  other  fearful  symptoms,  the  first  loss  will 
probably  be  the  least ;  and  if  the  owners  can  get  any  thing 
like  a  tolerable  price  for  them,  the  sooner  they  are  sent  to 
the  butchers,  or  consumed  at  home,  the  better.  Supposing, 
however,  that  their  appearance  is  beginning  to  tell  tales 
about  them,  and  they  are  too  far  gone  to  be  disposed  of  in 
the  market  or  consumed  at  home,  are  they  to  be  abandoned 
to  their  fate  ?  No  :  far  from  it." 

The  above  is  a  paragraph  which  I  could  most  sincerely 
wish  stricken  from  the  writings  of  its  accomplished  author. 
It  will  astonish  even  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  astute 
and  calculating  selfishness  of  Mr.  Bake  well's  character  to  learn 
that  he  purposely  rotted  sheep  which  were  to  be  sold  to  the 
butcher,  to  avail  himself  of  the  superior  fattening  properties 
which  the  diseased  animals  temporarily  possess !  This  remark- 
able fact  is  stated  by  both  Mr.  Youatt  and  Mr.  Spooner.* 

*  The  sale  of  the  meat  of  diseased  animals  is  regarded  as  infamous  in  all  parts  of 


THK     EOT.  377 

_  Of  the  treatment  of  rot  Mr.  Youatt  continues : — "  If  it  is 
suited  to  the  convenience  of  the  farmer,  and  such  ground 
were  at  all  within  his  reach,  the  sheep  should  be  sent  to  a 
salt-marsh  in  preference  to  the  best  pasture  on  the  best  farm. 
There  it  will  feed  on  the  salt  incrusted  on  the  herbage,  and 
pervading  the  pores  of  every  blade  of  grass.  A  healthy  salt- 
marsh  permits  not  the  sheep  to  become  rotten  which  graze 
upon  it ;  and  if  the  disease  is  not  considerably  advanced,  it 
cures  those  which  are  sent  upon  it  with  the  rot.  *  *  *  Are 
there  any  indications  of  fever,  heated  mouth,  heaving  flanks, 
or  failing  appetite.  Is  the  general  inflammation  beginning  to 
have  a  determination  to  that  part  on  which  the  disease 
usually  expends  its  chiefest  virulence  ?  Is  there  yellowness  of 
of  the  lips  and  of  the  mouth,  of  the  eyes  and  of  the  skin  ? 
At  the  same  time  are  there  no  indications  of  weakness 
and  decay  ?  Nothing  to  show  that  the  constitution  is 
fatally  undermined?  Bleed — abstract,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case,  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  ounces  of  blood. 
There  is  no  disease  of  an  inflammatory  character  at  its  com- 
mencement, which  is  not  benefited  by  early  bleeding.  To 
this  let  a  dose  of  physic  succeed — two  or  three  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts,  administered  in  the  cautious  manner  so  fre- 


the  United  States  and  in  almost  the  only  case  where  I  ever  knew  it  to  occur  in  my 
vicinity,  the  seller  —  a  very  low  man — was  punished  in  exemplary  damages  by  a  jury 
and  received  the  soubriquet  of  "  Stinking  Meat,"  which  followed  him  through  life. 
The  meat  sold  by  him  had  no  offensive  odor ;  its  condition  was  not  discovered  until  it 
was  partly  consumed;  nor  was  it  then  discovered  by  the  taste  or  appearance  of  the  meat 
— but  by  the  information  of  a  person  privy  to  the  facts.  But  it  was  proved  that  the 
animal  was  affected  by  a  disease  usually  mortal,  and  expected  to  prove  mortal  in  the 
present  case.  I  have  forgotten  what  the  disease  was.  There  might  have  been  semo 
color  of  proof  that  the  meat  proved  unwholesome.  Selling  '-unwholesome  provi- 
sions" is  a  misdemeanor  at  common  law,  and  therefore  indictable.  And  every 
contract  for  provisions  implies  that  they  shall  be  wholesome.  (See  3  Blackstone's 
Com.,  165.)  The  vendor  is  bound  to  know  they  are  sound  and  wholesome  at  his  peril. 
American  courts  and  juries  have  given  an  extensive  construction  to  the  term  whole- 
some, in  this  connection.  In  fact,  if  it  can  be  proved  that  a  person  has  sold  meat  knowing 
that  the  animal,  when  killed,  was  laboring  under  any  constitutional  or  serious  malady, 
or  even  that  it  was  killed  to  anticipate  death  from  unnatural  and  accidental  causes  — 
if  there  is  any  good  reason  to  suppose  those  causes  placed  the  meat  in  the  situation  of 
that  of  a  diseased  animal— I  say  courts  and  juries  under  these  circumstances  demand 
only  colorable  proof  that  the  meat  is  umoliolesome  to  assess  damages  on  the  vendor. 
Tims  in  Fonda  vs.  Van  Bracklin,  the  plaintiff  recovered  five  dollars  damages  of  the 
defendant,  for  selling  him  a  quarter  of  beef  from  a  cow  that  "had  eaten  shortly  before 
she  was  killed,  a  very  large  quantity  of  peas  and  oats,  and  that  was  slaughtered 
for  fear  she  would  die  in  consequence  of  her  having  eaten  them."  It  was  proved  that 
those  who  ate  the  beef  "were  generally  made  very  sick  and  that  one  of  Fonda's 
servants  was  sick  two  weeks  from  eating  it."  The  case  was  carried  up  to  the 
Supreme  Court,  &c.,  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  the  judgment  affirmed.  I  know 
nothing  about  the  parties,  but  infer  from  the  amount  of  the  verdict  that  they  were 
persons  of  low  character,  and  that  the  proof  of  the  subsequent  illness  of  the  persons 
who  eat  the  meat,  was  not  much  credited.  In  other  words,  I  infer  that  the  verdict  was, 
more  than  anything  else,  an  expression  that  no  man  has  a  right  to  sell  the  meat 
of  a  diseased  animal.  The  jury  could  not  have  believed  that  the  meat  produced 
the  alleged  effects.  Such  a  verdict  could  not  have  Tjeen  founded  on  that 
hypothesis. 


378  THE     EOT. 

quently  recommended ;  and  to  these  means  let  a  change  of 
diet  be  immediately  added — good  hay  in  the  field,  and  hay, 
straw,  or  chaff,  in  the  straw-yard. 

"The  physic  having  operated,  or  an  additional  dose, 
perchance,  having  been  administered  in  order  to  quicken  the 
action  of  the  first,  the  farmer  will  look  out  for  further  means 
and  appliances.  *  *  *  Two  or  three  grains  of 
calomel  may  be  given  daily,  but  mixed  with  half  the 
quantity  of  opium,  in  order  to  secure  its  beneficial  and  ward 
off  its  injurious  effects  on  the  ruminant.  To  this  should  be 
added — a  simple  and  cheap  medicine,  but  that  which  is  the 
sheet  anchor  of  the  practitioner  here — common  salt.  *  * 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  a  purgative  inferior  to  few,  when  given 
in  a  full  dose  ;  and  it  is  a  tonic  as  well  as  a  purgative.  *  * 
A  mild  tonic,  as  well  as  an  aperient,  is  plainly  indicated  soon 
after  the  commencement  of  rot.  The  dose  should  be  from 
two  to  three  drachms,  repeated  morning  and  night.  When 
the  inflammatory  stage  is  clearly  passed,  stronger  tonics  may 
be  added  to  the  salt,  and  there  are  none  superior  -to  the 

fentian  and  ginger  roots;  from  one  to  two  drachms  of  each, 
nely  powdered,  may  be  added  to  each  dose  of  the  salt.         * 
*         *         The  sheep  having  a  little  recovered  from  the 
disease,  should  still  continue  on  the  best  and  driest  pasture 
on  the  farm,  and  should  always  have  salt  within  their  reach. 
*        *        *        The  rot  is  not  infectious." 

SCROFULA.  —  I  have  never  witnessed  an  instance  of  this 
malady  in  our  country.  Mr.  Spooner  says  of  it : — "  Sheep  are 
liable  to  a  scrofulous  disease  which  is  almost  uniformly  fatal. 
It  is  called  the  evil  in  some  places,  and  elsewhere  receives 
other  denominations.  A  hard  swelling  of  the  glands  under  the 
jaws  is  first  observed;  after  a  time  small  pustules  appear  about 
the  head  and  neck,  which  break,  discharging  a  white  matter, 
then  heal,  and  are  followed  by  others  more  numerous.  This 
gradually  robs  the  animal  of  flesh,  and  slowly  pining  away, 
it  becomes  at  length  quite  useless,  and  in  this  state  is 
destroyed.  It  seldom  attacks  great  numbers  at  a  time,  but 
selects  generally  a  few  individuals  from  a  flock. 

"  The  writer,  though  he  cannot  say  that  he  has  perfectly 
succeeded  in  effecting  a  cure,  has  done  so  to  a  certain  extent, 
so  that  the  tumors  disappeared  and  the  animals  improved  in 
flesh  and  health,  but  afterwards  relapsed.  This  he  has 
accomplished  by  administering  four  or  five  grains  of  hydrio- 
date  of  potash  daily  in  gruel,  and  rubbing  the  parts  likewise 


HEREDITARY     DISEASES.  379 

with  ointment  of  iodide  of  mercury.    As  soon  as  the  animal 
is  considerably  better,  it  should  be  sent  to  the  butcher." 

HEREDITARY  DISEASES.  —  Mr.  Finlay  Dun,  Lecturer  on 
Materia  Medica  and  Dietetics  at  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary 
College,  after  giving  much  attention  to  the  subject  of  hered- 
itary Diseases  in  domestic  animals,  summed  up  his  conclusions 
as  follows  : 

1.  "They  are  transmitted  by  the  male  as  well  as  by  the 
female  parent,   and   are   doubly  severe  in  the   offspring  of 
parents,  both  of  which  are  affected  by  them. 

2.  They  develop   themselves  not  only  in  the  immediate 
progeny  of  one  affected  by  them,  but  also  in  many  subsequent 
generations. 

3.  They  do  not,  however,  always  appear  in  each  genera- 
tion in  the  same  form ;  one  disease  is  sometimes  substituted 
for   another,   analogous   to   it,   and  this   again,    after    some 
generations,  becomes  changed  into  that  to  which  the  breed 
was  originally  liable,  as  phthisis  (consumption)  and  dysentery. 
Thus,  a  stock  of  cattle  previously  subject  to  phthisis,  some- 
times become  affected  for  several  generations  with  dysentery, 
to  the  exclusion  of  phthisis,  but  by  and  by,  dysentery  disap- 
pears to  give  place  to  phthisis. 

4.  Hereditary  diseases  occur  to  a  certain  extent  independ- 
ently of  external  circumstances,  appearing  under  all  sorts  of 
management,  and  being  little  affected  by  changes  of  locality, 
separation  from  diseased  stock,  or  such  causes  as  modify  the 
production  of  non-hereditary  diseases. 

5.  They  are,  however,  most  certainly  and  speedily  devel- 
oped in  circumstances  inimical  to  general  good  health,  and 
often  occur  at  certain,  so  called,  critical  periods  of  life,  when 
unusual  demands  on  the  vital  powers  take  place. 

6.  They  show  a  striking  tendency  to  modify  and  absorb 
into   themselves  all  extraneous  diseases;  for  example,  in  an 
animal  of  consumptive  constitution,  pneumonia  seldom  runs 
its   ordinary   course,   and  when  arrested,  often  passes    into 
consumption. 

7.  Hereditary   diseases    are   less   effectually  treated    by 
ordinary   remedies  than   other  diseases.     Thus,  although  an 
attack  of  phthisis,  rheumatism,  or  opthalmia  may  be  subdued, 
and  the  patient  put  out  of  pain  and  danger,  the  tendency  to 
the   disease  will  still  remain  and  be  greatly  aggravated  by 
each  attack. 

"In  horses   and,  neat  cattle,  hereditary   diseases   do  not 


380  HEREDITARY   DISEASES CUTS. 

usually  show  themselves  at  birth,  and  sometimes  the  tendency 
remains  latent  for  many  years,  perhaps  through  one  or  two 
generations,  and  afterwards  breaks  out  with  all  its  former 
severity." 

Mr.  Dun's  omission  of  sheep  from  the  list  of  animals 
above  named,  as  subjects  of  hereditary  disease,  is  merely 
accidental,  for  in  a  paper  on  the  "Hereditary  Diseases  of 
Sheep  and  Pigs,"  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  1856,  he  mentions,  as  among  the  hered- 
itary diseases  of  the  former,  epilepsy  or  fits,  hydatids  in  the 
brain  (or  turnsick  or  sturdy),  chronic  cough,  chronic  diseases 
of  the  respiratory  organs  generally,  diseases  of  the  digestive 
organs,  which  produce  diarrhea  and  dysentery,  rheumatism, 
scrofula,  tabes  mesenterica  (a  variety  of  scrofulous  disease,) 
and  consumption.  Mr.  Dun  says : — "  When  a  scrofulous 
constitution  presents  itselt  prominently  in  an  adult  sheep, 
it  is  generally  in  the  form  of  pulmonary  consumption,  or,  as 
it  is  technically  termed,  phthisis  pulmonalis"  He  subse- 
quently adds : 

"  But  these  are  not  the  only  evils  which  assail  sheep  of  a 
scrofulous  constitution.  They  are  occasionally  affected  by 
chronic  swellings  about  the  neck  and  throat,  at  first  hard,  but 
afterwards  softening,  bursting  externally,  and  discharging  an 
unhealthy  pus.  These  swellings  are  analogous  to  clyers  in 
cattle,  and  like  them  are  most  apt  to  occur  in  scrofulous 
subjects  living  in  localities  exposed  to  east  winds.  Scrofulous 
sheep  are  likewise  subject  to  intractable  swellings  of  the 
joints,  to  foot-rot  in  its  most  tedious  and  aggravated  form  ; 
and  to  rickets,,  a  disease  of  the  bones,  occurring  in  early 
youth,  from  perverted  nutrition,  and  consisting  in  a  softening 
of  the  osseous  tissue.  They  are  further  of  such  a  weak  and 
depraved  constitution  as  to  fall  easy  and  early  victims  to  any 
ordinary  or  prevailing  diseases  which,  moreover,  are  in  them 
developed  with  unusual  severity." 

CUTS.  —  When  a  sheep  has  received  a  simple,  clean  cut, 
the  edges  of  the  wound  should  be  brought  accurately  together 
and  the  skin  confined  by  stitches.  A  bandage,  if  the  situation 
of  the  wound  admits  of  its  use,  will  keep  the  separate  parts 
better  in  place,  and  prevent  the  stitches  in  the  skin  from 
tearing  out,  as  they  are  apt  to  do  when  the  cut  is  across  the 
muscular  fibers,  so  that  their  retraction  has  a  tendency  to  pull 
the  wound  open.  A  little  turpentine  applied  to  the  wool  near 
*he  parts,  or  to  the  bandage,  will  prevent  the  attack  of  the  fly. 


WOUNDS  —  DOG   BITES — POISONED   WOUNDS.  381 

LACERATED  AND  CONTUSED  WOUNDS. — If  the  wound  is 
torn,  and  contused,  the  parts  if  not  too  much  injm-ed  should 
be  placed  as  near  as  practicable  in  their  natural  position ;  if 
too  much  lacerated  or  crushed,  the  loose  and  disorganized 
parts  should  be  carefully  cut  away.  If  the  situation  of  the 
wound  admits  of  it,  a  warm  poultice  may  be  applied,  and 
changed  twice  a  day,  until  healthy  suppuration  ensues. 
Afterward  it  will  only  require  to  be  kept  covered  with  an 
oiled  or  greased  cloth,  sufficiently  touched  with  turpentine  to 
repel  the  fly.  If  the  situation  of  the  wound  does  not  admit 
of  poulticing,  it  should  be  fomented  until  clean,  and  some 
mild  stimulant  applied.  Mr.  Spooner  recommends  tincture  of 
myrrh,  and  an  astringent  powder  compounded  as  follows: 
powdered  chalk  4  oz.,  Armenian  bole  1  oz.,  powdered  charcoal 
1  oz.,  powdered  alum  £  oz.,  sulphate  of  zinc  £  oz. 

PUNCTURED  WOUNDS.  —  These  are  made  by  pointed 
instruments,  splinters  of  wood,  etc.  Fomentations  are 
generally  made  use  of,  and  the  Mountain  Shepherd's  Manual 
states  that  if  these  are  made  with  a  decoction  of  chamomile 
flowers,  their  good  eflects  will  be  increased.  "  The  method 
of  applying,  [fomentations]  is  to  dip  a  piece  of  woolen  cloth 
into  the  decoction  when  hot,  then  to  wring  it,  and  apply  it  to 
the  parts,  dipping  the  cloth  again  when  the  heat  has  abated." 
If  the  wound  heals  on  the  outside  before  it  does  within,  and 
matter  forms  in  it,  it  must  again  be  opened. 

DOG  BITES. — From  their  torn  and  lacerated  character,  dog 
bites  are  generally  very  fatal, — and  the  more  so,  from  the  fact 
that  the  skin  is  generally  stripped  from  large  surfaces.  When 
the  latter  has  occurred  in  hot  weather,  and  particularly 
when  the  skin  is  removed  from  the  body,  gangrene  generally 
ensues  speedily.  I  have  attempted  to  procure  the  re-adhesion 
of  the  skin  by  carefully  cleansing  it,  restoring  the  remaining 
portions  to  their  natural  position,  and  stitching  the  edges 
together :  but  in  hot  weather,  and  when  the  flies  are  abundant 
I  have  never  succeeded  when  the  denuded  surfaces  were  at  all 
extensive.  In  the  latter  cases,  fatal  gangrene  has  usually  even 
anticipated  the  attacks  of  the  fly.  Wounds  from  bites  are  to 
be  treated  like  other  wounds  exhibiting  the  same  kind  of 
injuries. 

POISONED  WOUNDS. — In  the  Mountain  Shepherd's  Manual 
it  is  stated  that  sheep  in  Europe  are  not  unfrequently  bitten 


382  SPRAINS — BEUTSES  —  ABSCESS. 

by  venomous  snakes,  and  that  when  this  occurs,  "  a  spoonful 
of  rape  or  olive  oil  should  be  given  several  times  a  day,  or 
the  same  quantity  of  the  solution  of  an  ounce  of  volatile  salt 
in  two  quarts  of  water."  In  France  snakes  have  been 
thought  to  suck  the  milk  of  ewes,  inflicting  wounds  in  the 
teat  which  cause  them  to  dry  up  permanently.  *  I  have  never 
seen  or  heard  of  a  case  of  either  kind  in  the  United  States  ; 
and  I  attach  no  credit  to  the  supposed  snake-sucking  in  any 
part  of  the  world. 

SPRAINS. — The  mode  of  treating  sprains  recommended  in. 
the  Mountain  Shepherd's  Manual  is  the  only  one  I  have  ever 
heard  of  which  was  attended  with  any  observable  success. 
The  limb  is  immediately  immersed  in  hot  water  for  half  an 
hour,  and  this  repeated  several  times  a  day.  The  cure  is 
often  rapid. 

BRUISES  AND  STRAINS, —  Are  treated  on  the  sheep,  if  at 
all,  with  hot  fomentations,  and  the  application  of  camphor. 

ABSCESS. — I  have  never  seen  a  case  of  this.  Mr.  Spooner 
says  : — ''Abscess,  which  is  a  collection  of  pus  or  matter  under 
the  skin,  may  be  produced  by  a  bruise,  or  by  some  constitutional 
cause.  Whilst  collecting,  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  usually 
very  tender,  and  sometimes  there  is  also  much  constitutional 
irritation  present.  A  collection  of  matter  may  be  known  by 
the  heat,  swelling  and  pain  of  the  part.  On  pressing  it  the 
contained  fluid  is  felt  to  fluctuate ;  and  the  pressure  being 
removed,  the  part  immediately  assumes  its  former  shape, 
whilst  a  Avatery  or  dropsical  swelling,  on  being  pressed, 
leaves  for  some  time  the  marks  of  the  fingers.  After  some 
time  the  abscess  points ;  that  is,  the  matter  can  be  more 
distinctly  felt  at  one  particular  part,  at  which,  if  permitted, 
the  abscess  would  soon  burst.  This,  however,  should  not  be 
permitted ;  but  at  this  stage  the  abscess  should  be  opened  at 
the  lowest  part,  or  that  which  would  admit  most  readily  of 
its  discharging  itself.  The  opening  should  be  large,  and  no 
dressing  will  be  required  except  the  continuance  of  the 
fomentation,  which  should  previously  be  used.  It  should  be 
observed  that,  if  the  abscess  is  languid  and  slow  in  forming, 
a  stimulant,  such  as  hartshorn  and  oil,  rubbed  in  occasionally, 
will  be  useful." 


*  Mountain  Shepherd's  Manual,  p.  8. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

MEDICINES    USED   IN   THE   TEEATMENT    OP    THE    DIS- 
EASES  OP  SHEEP. 

THE  list  of  medicines  below,  comprises  the  principal  ones 
employed  in  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  sheep. 

EXPLANATION    OF   MEDICAL   TERMS    USED    IN   THIS    CHAPTER. 

Absorbent. —  A  medicine  used  for  absorbing  acidity  in  the 
stomach  and  bowels. 

Anodyne. —  A  medicine  which  relieves  pain. 

Antacid. —  A  remedy  which  removes  sourness  in  the 
stomach. 

Anthelmintic. —  A  remedy  which  destroys  or  expels 
worms. 

Antiseptic. —  A  preventive  of  putrefaction. 

Antispasmodic. —  A  preventive  of  spasms. 

Aperient. —  A  medicine  which  opens  the  bowels. 

Astringent. —  A  medicine  externally  that  has  the  property 
of  contracting  organic  textures,  and  internally  of  diminishing 
evacuation  or  dunging. 

Carminative. —  A  remedy  which  allays  pain  and  causes 
the  expulsion  of  flatus,  or  wind,  from  the  body. 

Cathartic. —  A  medicine  which  causes  an  increase  of 
evacuation  or  dunging. 

Caustic. — A  body  which  has  the  power  of  burning  or 
consuming  flesh  and  other  animal  substances. 

Cordial. —  A  tonic  medicine  which  excites  the  system  and 
increases  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Diaphoretic. —  A  medicine  which  promotes  perspiration 
or  SAveating,  and  a  carrying  off  of  the  humors  of  the  body 
through  the  pores  of  the  skin. 

Disinfectant. —  An  agent  which  removes  the  causes  of 
infection. 


384  MEDICAL   TERMS MEDICINES. 

Diuretic. —  A  medicine  which  increases  the  discharge  of 
urine. 

Emetic. —  A  substance  capable  of  producing  vomiting  or 
puking. 

Emollient. — A  substance  which  allays  irritation  and  softens 
and  relaxes  parts  that  are  inflamed,  and  swollen  hard. 

Febrifuge. —  A  medicine  which  abates  or  drives  away 
fever. 

Febrile. —  Feverish. 

Laxative. —  A  medicine  which  loosens  or  opens  the 
bowels. 

Lubricant. —  A  substance  which  makes  the  body  to  which 
it  is  applied  soft  and  slippery. 

Narcotic. —  A  medicine  which,  by  acting  on  the  brain, 
relieves  pain,  allays  morbid  susceptibility,  and  produces  sleep. 
In  too  large  doses  narcotics  produce  stupor  and  death. 

Purgative. —  A  medicine  which  operates  more  powerfully 
in  opening  the  bowels  than  a  laxative. 

Rubefacient. —  An  application  which  produces  redness  or 
irritation  of  the  skin. 

Sedative. —  A  medicine  employed  to  depress  unnaturally 
increased  action  of  the  vital  forces,  and  thus  quiet  the  system. 

Stimulant. —  A  medicine  which  has  the  power  of  exciting 
the  action  of  the  organs  and  the  discharge  of  the  functions  of 
the  animal  system. 

Stomachic. —  A  medicine  which  strengthens  the  stomach 
and  gives  more  activity  to  its  functions. 

Sudorific. —  A  medicine  that  causes  sweating. 

Tonic. —  A  medicine  that  gives  increased  strength  and 
vigor  to  the  action  of  the  system. 

LIST    OF   MEDICINES. 

ALCOHOL,  (Spirit  of  Wine). — Added  in  small  quantities  as 
a  stimulant  to  purgatives,  in  low  forms  of  disease. 

ALE.  —  Administered  to  sinking  ewes  before  and  after 
parturition,  usually  in  doses  of  about  a  gill ;  after  long  and 
exhausting  parturition,  it  is  mixed  Avith  two  to  four  drachms 
of  laudanum ;  the  dose  repeated  at  intervals  of  three  or  four 
hours.  Ale  is  sometimes  given  to  chilled  lambs. 

ALOES. —  Occasionally  used  as  a  purgative  ;  administered 
by  some  good  shepherds  in  combination  with  oil  for  colic  or 
stretches.  But  there  are  better  cathartics  for  sheep.  The 


LIST    OP   MEDICINES.  385 

tincture  of  aloes,  says  Mr.  Youatt,  "  is  a  very  useful,  stimula- 
ting and  healing  external  application  to  wounds.  Two  ounces 
of  powdered  aloes  and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  powdered 
myrrh,  should  be  macerated  [soaked]  in  a  pint  of  rectified 
spirit  and  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water." 

ALTERATIVES. —  Ethiop's  mineral,  (black  sulphuret  of 
mercury,)  nitre  and  sulphur,  compounded  in  the  proportions 
of  one,  two  and  four,  is  useful  in  the  cutaneous  diseases  of 
sheep.  Average  dose  two  drachms,  administered  daily. 

ALUM  —  Is  used  in  some  astringent  medicines,  but  is 
inferior  to  various  other  articles  for  this  purpose.  It  is  some- 
times employed  in  solution  to  bathe  an  inverted  womb  or  a 
prolapsed  rectum.  (See  page  145.)  Burnt  alum  is  used  as  a 
stimulant  and  caustic  on  wounds,  but  there  are  better  ones. 

AMMONIA  —  In  the  form  of  hartshorn,  enters  into  various 
liniments,  and  some  other  medicines.  It  is  an  excellent 
external  stimulant,  and  rubefacient.  Internally  it  is  an 
antacid  and  sudorific,  but  is  not  often  thus  used  in  sheep 
diseases. 

ANODYNES. —  Opium  is  chiefly  employed  for  this  purpose. 
The  modes  and  times  of  its  exhibition  have  been  pointed  out 
throughout  this  volume. 

ANTIMONY,  (the  Chloride  of  Butyr  of.-) — By  far  the  best 
caustic  in  advanced  stages  of  hoof -rot.  For  the  causes  of 
its  superiority,  and  for  its  mode  of  application,  see  page  370. 

AQUA-FOKTIS. — See  Nitric  Acid. 

ARSENIC. —  Used  in  solution  to  kill  ticks  and  cure  scab. 
See  pages  188,  341-343. 

ANTISPASMODICS. —  Opium  is  employed  in  the  case  of 
tetanus  or  locked-jaw,  colic,  etc. 

ASTRINGENTS. —  Opium  (acting  as  an  anodyne,)  is  chiefly 
relied  on  internally.  Catechu  frequently  forms  a  part  of 
medicines  intended  to  have  a  slightly  astringent  effect.  Alum 
is  used  in  the  form  of  alum  whey —  2  drachms  of  pulverized 
alum  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  hot  milk.  The  external  astringents 
most  used  in  sheep  diseases  are  a  solution  of  alum,  or  a 
decoction  of  white  oak  bark,  burnt  alum,  bole  Arminian,  etc/ 

BALLS. —  Medicine  should  never  be  administered  in  the 
form  of  balls  to  sheep.  For  the  reasons  see  page  299. 

BLISTERS. —  Not  often  resoi-ted  to  in  sheep  practice. 
When  used  the  hair  or  wool  must  be  closely  shaved,  and  the 
17 


386  LIST   OF   MEDICINES. 

parts  well  rubbed  with  an  ointment  composed  of  one  part  of 
powdered  cantharides,  four  of  lard,  and  one  of  resin. 

BOLE  ARMINIAN. —  An  argillaceous  earth  used  occasion- 
ally as  a  mild  external  astringent  on  wounds.  Internally  an 
astringent  and  absorbent. 

BONESET  OR  THOROUGHWORT. — (Eupatoritim perfoliatum.} 
A  good  tonic  and  diaphoretic;  in  large  doses  emetic  and 
aperient.  A  tea  made  of  this  is  administered  with  excellent 
effect  to  lambs,  under  the  circumstances  stated  at  page  150. 

CALAMINE. —  See  Zinc. 

CALOMEL. —  See  Mercury. 

CAMPHOR. —  Used  internally  as  a  narcotic,  diaphoretic  and 
sedative.  It  is  used  externally,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  to  reduce 
the  swelling  of  the  thyroid  glands  in  the  necks  of  lambs,  (see 
page  153.)  Dissolved  in  the  same  way,  or  in  oil,  it  is  applied 
to  the  udders  of  sheep  having  garget,  (see  page  331.)  It  is 
also  used  with  good  effect  as  an  external  stimulant  in  rheuma- 
tism, strains,  bruises,  swellings,  swelling  of  the  joints,  &c. 

CANTHARIDES. —  The  principal  ingredient  in  blistering 
ointments. 

CARRAWAY  SEED. —  Given  in  doses  of  two  or  three 
drachms  as  a  stomachic,  with  other  medicines. 

CASTOR  OIL. —  A  safe  and  excellent  pui'gative,  but  not 
used  as  much  as  saline  purgatives. 

CATECHU. —  A  valuable  astringent,  in  doses  of  half  a 
drachm.  It  is  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  celebrated 
"  sheep's  cordial." 

CAUSTICS. —  Butyr  of  antimony,  muriatic  acid,  sulphuric 
acid,  nitric  acid,  blue  vitriol,  burnt  alum,  <fcc.,  &c.  Blue 
vitriol  is  immeasurably  the  best  application  and  mild  caustic 
in  the  early  stages  of  hoof -rot,  as  butyr  of  antimony  is  in 
later  ones.  (See  Hoof  -  Rot.) 

CHALK,  (Prepared) — By  its  alkaline  properties,  neutralizes 
the  acidity  of  the  stomach,  and  thus  checks  diarrhea.  It  is  a 
very  valuable  remedy  in  doses  from  half  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce,  given  as  directed  under  the  head  of  "diarrhea." 
Mr.  Spooner  also  recommends  it  as  a  useful  external  applica- 
tion to  wounds  and  sores. 

CHAMOMILE. — A  mild  tonic  and  febrifuge.  Used  externally 
in  fomentations  for  wounds,  ulcers,  &c. 

CHARGES. —  Thick  adhesive  plasters  spread  over  parts  that 


LIST   OP   MEDICINES.  387 

require  support,  and  the  application  of  a  constant  and  moderate 
stimulus.  They  are  placed  on  the  shoulder  of  the  sheep  when 
the  bones  underneath  are  fractured. 

CLYSTERS. —  See  Injections. 

COPPER. — See  Verdigris  and  Vitriol. 

COPPERAS. —  See  Sulphate  of  Iron. 

CORDIAL.  —  Sheep's  cordial.  An  excellent  remedy  for 
Diarrhea.  For  mode  of  preparing  it  see  page  307. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE  (Bi-chloride  of  Mercury) — The 
most  convenient  form  in  which  mercury  can  be  administered 
internally.  The  proto-chloride,  or  calomel,  from  its  great 
gravity,  could  not,  with  any  certainty,  be  made  to  reach  the 
fourth  stomach.  It  would  seem  that  mercury  should  be  a 
useful  remedy  in  several  of  the  diseases  of  sheep.  Corrosive 
sublimate  dissolved  in  alcohol  is  an  excellent  application 
to  old  and  ill-conditioned  wounds  or  ulcers.  It  is  very 
effectual  in  destroying  maggots  in  wounds  and  in  repelling 
the  attacks  of  the  fly. 

CROTON  SEEDS  OR  OIL — A  very  powerful  and  rapid 
purgative  rarely  resorted  to  in  the  diseases  of  sheep.  Dose, 
says  Mr.  Spooner,  from  5  to  15  drops  of  the  oil.  It  is  some- 
times applied  externally,  sufficiently  reduced,  in  glandular  and 
and  other  indolent  swellings. 

DIGITALIS  (Fox-glove) — A  sedative,  and  it  lowers  the 
frequency  of  the  pulse.  It  enters  into  most  of  the  fever 
medicines  of  the  English  veterinarians.  Dose,  1  scruple. 

ELDER  —  The  ointment  of,  has  been  once  or  twice 
mentioned  in  this  volume.  It  is  made  by  boiling  elder  leaves 
in  lard,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  softening  and  soothing 
applications  known  for  inflamed  and  irritated  surfaces. 

EPSOM  SALTS  (Sulphate  of  Magnesia) — In  doses  from  half 
an  ounce  to  one,  and  in  some  few  cases  two  ounces,  the  best 
purgative  which  can,  in  almost  every  disease,  be  administered 
to  sheep. 

FOMENTATIONS — To  reduce  swellings,  lessen  inflammation 
and  relieve  pain  in  inflamed  udder,  garget,  and  various 
other  cases,  these  are  invaluable.  They  are  applied  by 
dipping  a  woolen  cloth  constantly  in  hot  water  —  as  hot  as 
can  possibly  be  endured  by  the  hand  —  and  laying  or  gently 
pressing  it  on  the  parts.  To  be  effectual,  fomentations  must 
be  continued  a  long  time ;  and  the  part  should  be  left  covered 


388  LIST   OP   MEDICINES. 

if  practicable,  particularly  in  cold  weather,  or  cold  may  be 
taken  in  it,  and  the  original  difficulty  only  aggravated. 

GENTIAN —  The  best  vegetable  tonic  in  use.  Dose  from  1 
to  2  drachms. 

GIN  —  Given  in  doses  of  half  a  teaspoonful  to  a  teaspoonful 
in  warm  milk  to  chilled  lambs,  with  admirable  effect.  '  I 
omitted  to  mention,  when  speaking  of  the  mode  of  procuring 
the  adoption  of  a  foster  lamb,  that  gin  rubbed  on  the  nose  of 
the  ewe  and  sprinkled  over  the  lamb,  promotes  that  object. 

GINGEK. —  A  highly  useful  cordial  and  stomachic,  given 
with  most  aperient  medicines  to  prevent  griping.  Dose  from 
half  a  drachm  to  two  drachms. 

HAKTSHOBN. —  See  Ammonia. 

INJECTIONS. —  These  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
relieve  constipation  in  lambs.  For  their  composition,  and  the 
mode  of  administering  them,  see  page  150. 

IODINE. —  The  hydriodate  of  potash  in  the  proportion  of 
one  part  to  seven  or  eight  parts,  by  weight,  of  lard,  consti- 
tutes an  ointment  which  is  a  powerful  stimulant  to  the 
absorbing  vessels,  and  therefore  is  an  excellent  application  to 
glandular  swellings,  or  to  indurated  tumors.  It  is  a  good 
application  to  swelled  udder,  (garget,)  or  to  enlarged  thyroid 
glands.  (See  Goitre  and  Garget.) 

LARD  —  A  gentle  purgative  in  doses  of  two  ounces.  The 
basis  of  most  ointments,  and  applied  externally  in  almost 
every  case  as  an  emollient  and  lubricant  in  the  place  of  oils. 

LAUDANUM. —  See  Opium. 

LEAD  (Acetate  or  Sugar  of  Lead)  —  Mixed  with  other 
ingredients  to  form  caustic  applications  in  hoof -rot. 

LEAD  (White)  —  Is  used  in  cooling  and  drying  ointment. 

LIME  (Carbonate  of) — See  Chalk. 

LIME  (Chloride  of)  —  Is  a  powerful  disinfectant  and 
antiseptic.  It  is  used  to  disinfect  and  purify  stables,  &c.,  in 
which  contagious  diseases  have  occurred,  and  to  clean  the 
foot  and  remove  stench  in  the  worst  stages  of  hoof -rot.  It 
is  administered  internally  for  hoove.  (See  Hoove.) 

LINSEED — Or  flax-seed,  is  invaluable  as  an  emollient 
poultice.  It  forms  an  excellent  gruel  for  animals  during 
illness. 


LIST    OF   MEDICINES.  389 

LINSEED  OIL —  In  doses  of  two  ounces  is  a  safe  purgative 
where  the  intestines  are  irritated.  Ordinarily  it  is  not  so 
efficient  as  Epsom  salts. 

MAGNESIA  (Sulphate  of)  —  See  Epsom  salts. 

MERCURY.  —  Mercurial  ointment  is  used  as  an  application 
for  scab,  and  also  to  kill  ticks.  For  the  mode  of  compound- 
ing, see  pages  189,  "342. 

MERCURY  (Proto-Chloride  of,  or  Calomel) — It  is  not  much 
used  in  diseases  of  sheep.  (See  pages  322,  323,  378.) 

MERCURY  (Bi-Chloride  of. )  —  See  Corrosive  Sublimate. 

MURIATIC  ACID  (Spirit  of  Salt)  —  Next  to  chloride  of 
antimony,  the  best  caustic  in  the  worst  stages  of  hoof -rot. 

MYRRH. —  A  stimulant  tonic,  used  in  applications  to 
wounds.  (See  under  Aloes.) 

NITRATE  OF  SILVER,  (Lunar  Caustic)  — Is  the  best  super- 
ficial caustic,  but  is  far  too  expensive  to  be  used  on  ordinary 
occasions.  In  one  place,  however,  it  is  indispensable — in  the 
bites  of  rabid  animals,  or  where  their  saliva  is  brought  in 
contact  with  surfaces  denuded- of  skin.  It  has  not  yet  been 
shown  that  the  saliva  of  the  rabid  sheep  will  communicate 
that  dreadful  disease,  but  the  opposite  fact  is  not  positively 
established.  Some  of  the  sheep,  an  account  of  which  is  given 
at  pages  283-290,  had  been  handled  by  laborers,  after  becoming 
rabid,  and  the  saliva  might  have  come  in  contact  with  their 
hands  ;  andjone  of  the  Messrs.  Freer,  whose  sheep  were  bitten 
at  the  same  time,  not  suspecting  the  nature  of  the  malady, 
sponged  out  the  mouth  of  an  animal  in  the  last  stages  of 
rabies  !  On  examining  his  hands  the  skin  was  found  slightly 
fractured  in  several  places.  Whatever  might  have  been  the 
result,  it  relieved  some  painful  anxieties  to  see  his  hands,  and 
those  of  my  son's  laborers,  well  and  thoroughly  cauterized 
with  lunar  caustic,  so  as  to  form  a  thick  black  eschar  or  scab 
wherever  there  was  the  least  break  in  the  skin.  Mr.  Youatt, 
who  probably  had  more  experience  with  rabies  than  any  man 
who  ever  lived,  considered  immediate  and  thorough  cauteri- 
zation, by  nitrate  of  silver,  of  the  wounded  or  exposed  parts 
— to  the  very  bottom  of  the  the  tooth  holes  in  case  of  bites — 
a  perfect  protection  against  the  virus  of  rabies. 

NITRE,  OR  SALT-PETRE,  (Nitrate  of  Potash) — In  doses  of 
a  drachm  or  two,  enters  into  every  fever  medicine.  It  is 
cooling,  diuretic,  and  diaphoretic.  Externally  it  is  a  powerful 
antiseptic. 


390  LIST    OF    MEDICINES. 

NITRIC  ACID  (Aqua-fortis) —  Sometimes  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  chloride  of  antimony,  or  muriatic  acid,  as  a  caustic  in 
hoof-rot.  Used  by  drovers  also  to  harden  the  soles  of  sheep's 
feet  which  have  become  thin  and  tender  by  traveling.  It  is 
touched  over  the  soles  with  a  feather. 

OLIVE  OIL  (Sweet  Oil) — Is  used  in  many  external  applica- 
tions, and  sometimes  internally  as  a  laxative ;  but  for  the  last 
•purpose  is  inferior  to  the  other  oils  given  as  cathartics,  and  to 
Epsom  salts. 

OPIUM — As  an  antispasmodic,  sedative  and  astringent  it 
stands  unrivaled.  Mr.  Youatt  remarks  : —  "  A  colic  drink 
would  have  little  effect  without  it;  and  if  opium  were  omitted 
in  the  medicines  for  diarrhea  and  dysentery,  every  other  drug 
would  be  given  in  vain."  In  the  form  of  gum  the  dose  is 
about  10  grains;  in  the  form  of  laudanum,  from  1  to  2 
drachms. 

PEPPER  (Black) — Given  pulverized,  in  doses  of  half  a 
teaspoonful  in  warm  milk,  to  chilled  lambs.  It  is  a  warm 
carminative  stimulant,  and  is  capable  of  producing  general 
arterial  excitement. 

PIMENTO  (Allspice)— A  substitute  for  ginger  in  the  same 
doses,  but  not  as  valuable. 

PUMPKIN  SEEDS — A  tea  of,  is  an  excellent  diuretic  for 
very  young  lambs,  when  their  urine  does  not  pass  with 
sufficient  freedom. 

RHUBARB  —  Unites  the  properties  of  a  cathartic  and 
subsequent  astringent.  In  small  doses,  it  is  a  tonic  and 
stomachic,  invigorating  the  digestion.  When  the  bowels  are 
relaxed  and  torpid,  and  the  stomach  in  a  feeble  state,  it  would 
seem  the  most  appropriate  purgative,  when  a  purgative  is 
required. 

RYE,  ( Ergot  of)  — A  powerful  stimulant  to  the  womb  — 
resorted  to  in  England  in  very  protracted  lambing.  Mr. 
Spooner  says  the  dose  is  one  scruple  infused  in  hot  water,  and 
repeated  if  required  in  the  course  of  one  or  two  hours. 

SPIRITS. —  Brandy,  rum,  whisky,  etc.,  may  be  made  a 
substitute  for  gin  for  chilled  lambs.  See  Gin. 

SALT,  (Muriate  of  Soda.) — An  ounce  constitutes  a  light 
purgative ;  in  small  quantities  a  tonic  and  stomachic.  The 


LIST    OF   MEDICINES.  391 

necessity  of  keeping  sheep  freely  supplied  with  salt  has  been 
referred  to  under  Summer  and  Winter  Management.  For 
its  great  efficacy  in  Rot,  see  page  378. 

SALT-PETRE. —  See  Nitre. 

SETONS. —  The  mode  of  inserting  these  is  pointed  out  at 
page  348. 

SPIRIT  OF  NITROUS  ETHER,  (Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre.)  —  In 
doses  of  two  drachms ;  a  valuable  diaphorectic,  diuretic  and 
anti-spasmodic.  It  is  much  used  in  fibrile  affections. 

SULPHATE  OF  COPPER. —  See  Blue  Vitriol. 

SULPHUR. —  Internally  an  aperient  in  doses  from  one  to 
two  ounces.  Externally  it  forms  the  basis  of  ointments  used 
in  various  cutaneous  diseases. 

SULPHURIC  ETHER. — A  powerful  stimulant  and  anti-spas- 
modic. Dose  one  drachm, 

SULPHURIC  ACID. —  A  powerful  caustic,  used  alone,  or  in 
combination  with  other  ingredients,  in  advanced  stages  of 
hoof-  rot. 

SULPHATE  OF  IRON,  (Copperas  or  Green  Vitriol.) — Used 
in  hoof-  rot  remedies,  but  much  less  valuable  for  that  purpose 
than  blue  vitriol.  Internally  a  tonic. 

SPIRIT  OF  TAR  —  Destroys  maggots,  and  prevents  the  fly 
from  depositing  its  eggs  in  ulcers  or  wounds. 

TAR  —  Is  an  impure  turpentine,  but  it  contains  several 
distinct  principles,  of  which  creosote  is  one.  Internally  it  is 
stimulant,  diuretic,  anthelmintic,  and  in  large  doses  is  laxative. 
Externally  it  is  a  stimulant,  produces  a  good  effect  on  foul  or 
indolent  ulcers,  and  repels  attacks  of  the  fly.  It  is  also 
resorted  to  as  a  mechanical  coating  for  the  feet,  &c.,  when 
denuded  of  their  natural  coverings,  in  order  to  retain  other 
applications  underneath,  keep  out  water,  &c 

TOBACCO. —  A  decoction  of  it  kills  the  acarus  of  scab,  and 
thus  cures  that  disorder.  It  also  kills  ticks,  lice,  &c.  An 
injection  of  it,  or  the  smoke  of  it  blown  into  the  nostrils,  causes 
the  larvae  of  the  the  Gad-fly  to  be  dislodged  from  the  cavities 
of  the  head.  Altogether  it  is  a  most  valuable  sheep  medicine, 
and  every  sheep  farmer  should  cultivate  it  in  his  garden  for 
that  purpose.  Tobacco  ointment,  made  by  boiling  an  ounce 


392  LIST    OF   MEDICINES. 

of  fresh  tobacco  leaves  cut  fine,  in  a  pound  of  lard  over  a 
gentle  fire  until  it  becomes  friable,  would  be  an  admirable 
application  on  irritable  ulcers  of  the  foot  or  other  parts. 

TURPENTINE  (Spirits  of)  —  Has  about  the  same  internal 
and  external  effect  with  tar ;  but  it  lacks  the  creosote,  which 
may  render  it  a  little  less  effective  on  old  ulcers.  (See  Tar.) 

VERDIGRIS  (Acetate  of  Copper)  — Often  used  in  hoof- rot 
in  combination  with  blue  vitriol.  Its  medicinal  properties  are 
very  similar,  and  I  doubt  whether  it  forms  any  useful  addition 
to  the  former  in  such  cases. 

ZINC  (Carbonate  of)  —  Mixed  with  lard,  constitutes  a 
valuable  emollient  and  healing  ointment.  It  is  mixed  in  the 
proportion  of  one  part  of  the  carbonate,  by  weight,  to  eight 
of  lead. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

THE  DOG  IN  ITS  CONNECTION  WITH  SHEEP. 

THE  INJURIES  INFLICTED  BY  DOGS  ON  SHEEP — THE  SHEEP 

DOG THE  SPANISH  SHEEP  DOG THE  HUNGARIAN  SHEEP 

DOG THE  FRENCH  SHEEP  DOG THE  MEXICAN  SHEEP 

DOG THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SHEEP  DOG OTHER  LARGE 

RACES  OF  SHEEP  DOGS THE  ENGLISH  SHEEP  DOG THE 

SCOTCH  SHEEP  DOG,  OR  COLLET ACCUSTOMING  SHEEP  TO 

DOGS. 

THE  DOG  is  justly  a  favorite  animal  with  man,  and  I 
cannot  deny  that  I  have  written  some  prose  heroics  in  his 
praise.*  But  on  the  whole,  on  summing  up  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  which  he  produces  to  mankind  —  and 
especially  to  sheep  growers  —  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
balancers  enormously  against  him. 

THE  INJURIES  INFLICTED  BY  DOGS  ON  SHEEP.  —  I  had 
purposed  to  collect  some  statistics  of  the  annual  injuries 
inflicted  on  sheep  by  dogs  in  the  State  of  my  residence, 
(New  York,)  but  I  found  them  already  prepared  to  my  hand 
in  reference  to  the  State  of  Ohio  —  which  will  answer  equally 
well  for  the  purposes  of  illustration  —  over  the  signature  of 
the  able  and  efficient  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Ohio 
State  Board  of  Agriculture,  John  H.  Klippart,  Esq.  I  need 
not  say  that  his  name  is  an  ample  guaranty  of  the  accuracy  of 
his  statements.  I  cut  the  paper  from  a  recent  number  of  the 
Ohio  Farmer.  Mr.  Klippart  says : 

"In  1858,  the  Legislature  of  Ohio  enacted  a  law  making 
it  the  duty  of  the  Township  Assessors  to  return  a  list  of  the 
sheep  killed  and  wounded  by  dogs,  in  every  township  in  the 
State.  From  the  annual  returns  we  are  now  obtaining  data 
from  which  to  estimate  the  amount  of  damage  done  by  dogs 

*  In  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South. 

17* 


394  INJUEIES    INFLICTED    BY   DOGS. 

to  the  wool-growing  interest.  Last  winter  the  Legislature 
enacted  a  law  requiring  the  Assessors  to  return  a  list  of  all 
the  dogs  in  their  respective  townships  or  wards.  Up  to  the 
present  time  I  have  returns  from  eighty  counties  —  eight 
counties  having  failed  to  make  returns ;  but  the  returns  from 
the  eighty  counties  furnish  sufficient  data  '  to  do  some 
figuring.' 

"Eighty  counties  return  162,933  dogs,  or  nearly  2,037 
dogs  per  county;  if  the  remaining  eight  counties,  viz.:  Allen, 
Ashland,  Fulton,  Licking,  Mahoning,  Montgomery,  Noble 
and  Putnam,  maintain  the  same  average,  the  complete  returns 
will  then  show  179,256  dogs  in  Ohio!  This  will  give  4^ 
dogs  to  every  square  mile  in  the  State,  1  dog  to  every  13 
inhabitants  in  the  State.  We  have  a  population  of  58  inhab- 
itants to  the  square  mile. 

"In  1860  the  Legislature  of  Rhode  Island  appropriated  the 
requisite  sum  of  money  to  enable  the  United  States  Marshal 
to  collect  some  special  statistics  of  that  State,  among  which 
was  dogs;  the  number  returned  by  the  Marshal  was  6,854 
dogs.  Rhode  Island  has  1,306  square  miles  of  territory, 
173,869  inhabitants.  This  gives  5£  dogs  to  every  square 
mile,  or  more  than  1  dog  to  every  25  inhabitants,  whilst  there 
are  133  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile. 

"  The  probabilities  are  that  not  more  than  half  the  dogs 
in  Ohio  have  been  returned  to  the  Assessors.  Many  instances 
have  come  to  my  knowledge,  where  parties  preferred  killing 
the  dogs  to  paying  taxes  on  them,  and  the  dogs  were 
accordingly  destroyed.  In  the  city  of  Columbus,  one  ward 
returns  three  dogs  only ;  but  private  information  assures  me 
of  more  than  forty  in  the  same  ward.  Franklin  county 
returns  2,167  dogs,  whilst  well  informed  parties  assert  that 
there  are  more  than  that  number  in  the  city  of  Columbus. 
It  is  safe  to  assume  that  there  are  at  least  200,000  dogs  in  the 
State. 

"  What  does  it  cost  to  keep  (feed)  these  dogs  ?  In  towns 
and  cities  it  will  be  no  exaggeration  to  value  the  food  consumed 
by  dogs  at  fifty  cents  each  per  week,  or  twenty-six  dollars 
per  annum ;  it  is  worth  just  as  much  in  the  country  or  on  the 
farm  to  keep  a  dog,'  but  their  food  can  be  procured  cheaper 
there,  and  is  worth  at  the  lowest  estimate  ten  dollars  per 
annum.  If  we  estimate  the  cost  of  keeping  the  dogs  in  the 
State  at  the  town  rate,  the  figures  show  that  the  cost  of 
keeping  them  is  five  millions  of  dollars,  but  if  we  take  the 
country  rate  it  will  amount  to  two  millions  of  dollars — these 


INJURIES    INFLICTED    BY    DOGS.  395 

are  the  two  extremes,  the  truth  lies  in  the  middle,  because 
there  are  fully  as  many  dogs  in  cities,  towns  and  villages,  as 
there  are  in  the  country.  Therefore  the  amount  expended 
for  food  for  dogs  in  Ohio,  is  worth  annually  the  sum  of  three 
and  a  half  millions  of  dollars,  or  more  than  three-fourths  the 
total  amount  of  State  taxes  for  the  years  1861  or  1862,  and 
just  the  amount  of  State  taxes  for  1860 !  Reflect  for  a 
moment  on  this  fact,  that  if  the  amount  of  food  consumed  by 
the  dogs  in  the  State  in  a  single  year  were  properly  disposed 
of,  the  sum  obtained  for  it  would  pay  the  State  taxes ! 
How  desperately  some  people  complain  at  the  amount  of 
taxes,  yet  none  complain  of  the  cost  of  keeping*  a  dog. 
Aside  from  the  expense  of  keeping  dogs,  they  have  killed 
and  injured  sheep  in 

'    1858,  to  the  amount  of ....$146,758 

1859,  "  "  102,398 

1860,  "  "  86,795 

1861,  "  "  87,092 

1862,  "  "  about 85,000 


Total  in  five  years, 508,043    - 

Annual  average, 101,608 

"There  are  then  $100,000  worth  of  sheep  killed  and 
injured  every  year  by  dogs  ;  and  this  has  been  going  on  ever 
since  sheep  were  in  the  State.  In  1846,  sheep  were  first 
enumerated  and  valued  for  taxation;  in  that  year  the  number 
in  the  State  was  3,141,946.  In  1862,  the  number  was 
4,448,227,  an  increase  of  1,306,281,  or  41^-  per  cent,  in  16 
years.  In  this  same  period  of  time,  the  number  of  swine  has 
more  than  doubled,  cattle  have  just  doubled,  and  horses  not 
quite  doubled.  Were  it  not  for  the  destruction  of  sheep  by 
dogs,  Ohio  would  to-day  have  ten  million  head  of  sheep;  but 
when  sheep  growers  are  compelled  to  pay  an  annual  tax  of 
$100,000  to  $150,000,  according  to  the  caprice  of  worthless 
dogs,  aside  from  the  regular  township  and  county  tax,  it  is 
no  wonder  that  they  become  discouraged,  invest  their  surplus 
capital  in  Western  lands,  and  thus  let  the  productive  interests 
of  the  State  sufler.  There  is  no  kind  of  doubt  that  the  dogs 
have  annually  destroyed  $100,000  worth  of  sheep  from  1846 
to  the  present  time,  or  an  aggregate  of  $1,700,000,  and  to 
what  purpose  ?  Who  has  been  benefited  by  this  destruction 
of  sheep?  NOBODV  !  When  the  lightning  strikes  down  one 
of  the  '  monarchs  of  the  forest,'  or  destroys  a  house  and  kills 
some  of.the  inmates,  the  benefits  in  health  and  continuation 
of  life  to  those  remaining  is  still  of  greater  benefit,  than  the 
loss  incurred  is  a  damage.  The  explosion  of  the  electric  fluid 


396  THE   SHEEP   DOG. 

purifies  the  atmosphere,  and  is  a  guarantee  for  the  continu- 
ance of  health ;  whereas  if  we  had  no  electrical  phenomenon, 
the  air  would  become  very  impure,  and  epidemics  or  other 
diseases  engendered  by  the  impurity,  would  destroy  vastly 
more  lives  than  the  lightning  does.  But,  in  the  destruction 
of  sheep  by  dogs,  there  is  no  benefit  or  advantage  of  any 
kind  arising  to  anybody. 

"  Finally,  are  dogs  of  as  much  benefit  'to  the  State  in  the 
aggregate  as  they  cost?  What  this  cost  is  I  have  endeavored 
to  show,  and  if  any  person  will  show  me  that  they  are  worth 
what  they  cost,  I  will  be  much  obliged  to  him  for  his  pains. 

"  It  "is  no  argument  to  say  that  the  food  would  have  been 
lost  at  all  events — and  that  it  costs  nothing  to  keep  a  dog  ; 
a  hog  will  eat  all  the  refuse  from  the  kitchen,  and  drink  the 
swill  besides,  and  pays  for  its  keeping  in  good  fat  pork  and 
lard,  or  if  taken  to  market  commands  cash.  In  fact  I  know 
several  instances  where  poor  men  grow  rich  by  keeping  hogs, 
and  other  instances  where  men,  comparatively  well  off,  grew 
poorer  by  keeping  dogs." 

And  now  per  contra  ! 

THE  SHEEP  DOG. — Buffon  thus  eloquently  describes  the 
sheep-dog,  and  compares  his  sagacity  and  value  to  man,  with 
other  races  : — "  This  animal,  faithful  to  man,  will  always 
preserve  a  portion  of  his  empire  and  a  degree  of  superiority 
over  other  beings.  He  reigns  at  the  head  of  his  flock,  and 
makes  himself  better  understood  than  the  voice  of  the  shepherd. 
Safety,  order  and  discipline  are  the  fruits  of  his  vigilance 
and  instinct.  They  are  a  people  submitted  to  his  management, 
whom  he  conducts  and  protects,  and  against  whom  he  never 
applies  force  but  for  the  preservation  of  good  order.  *  * 
If  we  consider  that  this  animal,  notwithstanding  his  ugliness, 
and  his  wild  and  melancholy  look,  is  superior  in  instinct  to  all 
others ;  that  he  has  a  decided  character  in  which  education 
has  comparatively  little  share;  that  he  is  the  only  animal 
born  perfectly  trained  for  the  service  of  others ;  that,  guided 
by  natural  powers  alone,  he  applies  himself  to  the  care  of  our 
flocks,  a  duty  which  he  executes  with  singular  assiduity, 
vigilance,  and  fidelity ;  that  he  conducts  them  with  an 
admirable  intelligence,  which  is  a  part  and  portion  of  himself; 
that  his  sagacity  astonishes  at  the  same  time  that  it  gives 
repose  to  his  master,  while  it  requires  great  time  and  trouble 
to  instruct  other  dogs  for  the  purposes  to  which  they  are 
destined ;  if  AVC  reflect  on  these  facts,  we  shall  be  confirmed 


THE    SPANISH    SHEEP    DOG. 


397 


in  the  opinion  that  the  shepherd's  dog  is  the  true  dog  of 
Nature,  the  stock  and  model  of  the  whole  species." 

I  shall  call  attention  to  but  a  few  of  the  most  distinguished 
varieties  of  the  sheep  dog. 


ARROGANTE A    SPANISH    SHEEP   DOG. 

THE  SPANISH  SHEEP  DOG. — The  cut  above  affords  a  faithful 
representation  of  a  thorough-bred  Spanish  Sheep  Dog  imported 
with  a  flock  of  Merino  sheep  a  number  of  years  since  into 
England. 

Soon  after  Arrogante's  arrival  in  England,  a  ewe  under 
his  charge  chanced  to  get  cast  in  a  ditch,  during  the  tempo- 
rary absence  of  the  Spanish  shepherd,  who  had  accompanied 
the  flock  and  dog  at  their  importation.  An  English  shepherd, 
in  a  spirit  of  vaunting,  insisted  on  relieving  the  fallen  sheep, 
in  preference  to  having  the  absent  shepherd  called,  though 
warned  by  his  companions  to  desist.  The  stern  stranger  dog 
met  him  at  the  gate  and  also  warned  him  with  sullen  growls, 
growing  more  menacing  as  he  approached  the  sheep.  The 
shepherd  was  a  powerful  and  bold  man,  and  felt  that  it  was 


•398  THE    SPANISH    SHEEP    DOG. 

too  late  now  to  retract  with  credit.  On  reaching  the  sheep, 
he  bent  carefully  forward,  with  his  eyes  on  the  dog,  which 
instantly  made  a  spring  at  his  throat.  A  quick  forward 
movement  of  his  arm  saved  his  throat,  but  the  arm  was  so 
dreadfully  lacerated  that  immediate  amputation  became 
necessary.  To  save  the  dog,  which  had  but  done  his  duty, 
as  he  had  been  taught  it,  from  the  popular  excitement,  he  was 
shipped  in  a  vessel  which  sailed  that  very  afternooja,  from 
Bristol  for  America.  He  was  sent  to  Francis  Rotch,  Esq., 
then  a  resident  of  New-Bedford,  Massachusetts. 

Fifteen  or  sixteen  years  ago,  when  I  was  writing  "  Sheep 
Husbandry  in  the  South,"*Mr.  Rotch  wrote  to  me  as  follows : 

"  I  have,  as  you  desired,  made  you  a  sketch  of  the  Spanish 
sheep  dog  Arrogante,  and  a  villainous  looking  rascal  he  is. 
A  worse  countenance  I  hardly  ever  saw  on  a  dog.  His  small, 
blood-shot  eyes,  set  close  together,  give  him  that  sinister, 
wolfish  look,  which  is  most  unattractive  ;  but  his  countenance 
is  indicative  of  his  character.  There  was  nothing  affectionate 
or  joyous  about  him.  He  never  forgave  an  injury  or  an 
insult ;  offend  him,  and  it  was  for  life.  I  have  often  been 
struck  with  his  resemblance  to  his  nation.  He  was  proud 
and  reserved  in  the  extreme,  but  not  quarrelsome.  Every 
little  cur  would  fly  out  at  him,  as  at  some  strange  animal ; 
and  I  have  seen  them  fasten  for  a  moment  on  his  heavy, 
bushy  tail,  and  yet  he  would  stride  on,  never  breaking  his 
long,  '  loping,'  shambling  trot.  Once  I  saw  him  turn,  and 
the  retribution  was  awful !  It  was  upon  a  large,  powerful 
mastiff  we  kept  as  a  night-guard  in  the  Bank.  He  then  put 
forth  his  strength,  which  proved  tremendous !  His  coat  hung 
about  him  in  thick,  loose,  matted  folds,  dirty  and  uncared-for 
— so  that  I  presume  a  dog  never  got  hold  of  anything  about 
him  deeper  than  his  thick,  tough  skin,  which  was  twice  too 
large  to  fit  him  anywhere,  and  especially  around  the  neck  and 
shoulders.  The  only  other  evidence  of  his  uncommon 
strength  which  I  had  observed,  was  the  perfect  ease  with 
which  he  threw  himself  over  a  high  wall  or  paling,  which 
often  drew  my  attention,  because  he  seemed  to  me  wanting 
in  that  particular  physical  development  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  consider  as  necessary  to  muscular  power.  He  was 
flat-chested,  and  flat-sided,  with  a  somewhat  long  back  and 
narrow  loin.  (My  drawing  foreshortens  his  length.)  His 
neck,  forearm  and  thigh  certainly  indicated  strength.  If  the 
Spanish  wolf  and  the  dog  ever  cohabit,  he  most  assuredly 
had  in  him  such  a  cross ;  the  very  effluvia  of  the  animal 


THE   SPANISH   SHEEP   DOG.  399 

betrayed  it.  In  all  in  which  he  differed  from  the  beautiful 
Spanish  shepherd  dog,  he  was  wolfish,  both  in  form  and  habits. 
But,  though  no  parlor  beauty,  Arrogante  was  unquestionably 
a  dog  of  immense  value  to  the  mountain  shepherd.  Several 
times  he  had  met  the  large  wolf  of  the  Appenines,  and 
without  aid  slain  his  antagonist.  The  shepherds  who  bred 
him  said  it  was  an  affair  of  no  doubtful  issue,  when  he 
encountered  a  wolf  single-handed.  His  history,  after  reach- 
ing England,  you  know." 

I  have  been  unable  to  procure  any  new  portrait,  known  to 
be  authentic,  of  a  dog  of  this  breed.  The  American  editor 
of  Mr.  Youatt's  work  on  the  Dog,  (Dr.  Lewis,)  states  the 
Spanish  sheep  dog  "  is  of  the  same  breed "  as  the  great 
Alpine  Spaniel  or  "  Bernardine  dog  "  which  is  employed  by 
the  monks  of  St.  Bernard  in  rescuing  travelers  among  the 
storms  and  avalanches  of  the  Alps.  I  have  seen  several  of 
these,  and  Arrogante  resembles  them  as  nearly  as  can  a  spare, 
attenuated,  ugly  man  resemble  one  of  massive  proportions 
and  noble  countenance  —  the  height,  length,  contour,  loose 
hide,  etc.,  are  the  same.*  But  while  I  strongly  incline  to 
credit  Dr.  Lewis'  assertion  of  the  identity  of  the  breeds,  I 
have  not  felt  authorized  to  give  a  portrait  of  a  Swiss  dog  as 
characteristic  of  a  race  of  Spanish  dogs. 

Arrogante  proved  himself  an  animal  of  immense  value. 
Dull,  almost  stupid,  and  apparently  sleeping  much  of  the  day, 
nothing,  however,  escaped  his  observation,  or  was  subse- 
quently erased  from  his  memory.  If  led  round  a  building,  or 
inclosure,  or  even  an  open  space,  at  night-fall,  in  a  manner 
to  evince  particular  design,  during  the  entire  night  like  a 
sentinel  he  traversed  some  part  of  the  guarded  ring,  permit- 
ting neither  man  nor  beast  to  pass  in  or  out  from  it.  When 
miserable  curs  intruded  on  his  charge,  they  were  slain  in 
an  instant.  He  possessed  almost  human  intelligence  in 
protecting  property  of  every  kind  belonging  to  his  master. 
But,  though  never  the  aggressor,  the  terrible  vindictiveness 
of  his  temper,  when  injured,  finally  cost  him  his  life. 

Mr.  Trimmer,  in  his  work  on  the  Merinos,  thus  describes 
the  mode  of  employing  the  Spanish  Sheep  Dog : —  "  There  is 
no  driving  of  the  flocks ;  that  is  a  practice  entirely  unknown ; 
but  the  shepherd,  when  he  wishes  to  remove  his  sheep,  calls 
to  him  a  tame  wether  accustomed  to  feed  from  his  hands. 


*  The  cut  of  the  Bernardine  dog,  in  Mr.  Youatt's  work,  represents  a  magnificent 
animal— but  the  kind  of  resemblance  I  have  named  between  it  and  Arrogante 
plainly  exists. 


400  THE   HUNGARIAN   SHEEP   DOG. 

The  favorite,  however  distant,  obeys  his  calls  and  the  rest 
follow.  One  or  more  of  the  dogs,  with  large  collars  armed 
with  spikes,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  the  wolves,  preeede 
the  floek,  others  skirt  it  on  each  side,  and  some  bring  up  the 
rear.  If  a  sheep  be  ill  or  lame,  or  lag  behind  unobserved  by 
the  shepherds,  they  stay  with  it  and  defend  it  until  some  one 
returns  in  search  of  it.  With  us,  dogs  are  often  used  for 
other  and  worse  purposes.  In  open,  uninclosed  districts  they 
are  indispensable,  but  in  others,  I  wish  them,  I  confess,  either 
managed  or  encouraged  less.  If  a  sheep  commits  a  fault  in 
the  sight  of  an  intemperate  shepherd,  or  accidentally  offends 
him,  it  is  dogged  into  obedience,  the  signal  is  given,  the  dog 
obeys  the  mandate,  and  the  poor  sheep  flies  round  the  field  to 
escape  from  the  fangs  of  him  who  should  be  his  protector, 
until  it  becomes  half  dead  with  fright  and  exhaustion,  while 
the  trembling  flock  crowd  together  dreading  the  same  fate, 
and  the  churl  exults  in  this  cowardly  victory  over  a  weak 
and  defenceless  animal." 

Mr.  John  Hare  Powell,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Agricultural  Society,  describes  some  Spanish  dogs,  imported 
with  the  early  Merinos  into  this  country,  and  then  owned  by 
'himself,  as  possessing  "all  the  valuable  characteristics  of  the 
English  shepherd's  dog,  with  sagacity,  fidelity  and  strength 
peculiar  to  themselves."  He  adds  : — "  Their  ferocity  when 
aroused  by  any  intruder,  their  attachment  to  their  own  flock, 
and  devotion  to  their  master,  would,  in  the  uncultivated  parts 
of  America,  make  them  an  acquisition  of  infinite  value,  by 
affording  a  defence  against  wolves,  which  they  ready  kill,  and 
vagrant  cur  dogs,  by  which  our  flocks  are  often  destroyed. 
The  force  of  their  instinctive  attachment  to  sheep,  and  their 
resolution  in  attacking  every  dog  which  passes  near  to  their 
charge,  have  been  forcibly  evinced  upon  my  farm."* 

THE  HUNGARIAN  SHEEP  DOG. — The  following  description 
of  the  Hungarian  Sheep  Dog,  occurs  in  Paget's  "  Hungary 
and  Transylvania."! — '"  It  would  be  unjust  to  quit  the  subject 
of  the  Puszta  Shepherd  without  making  due  and  honorable 
mention  of  his  constant  companion  and  friend,  the  juhasz- 
hutya — the  Hungarian  shepherd  dog.  The  shepherd  dog  is 

*  Mr.  Powell's  paper  is  copied  into  Memoirs  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  Vol.  3,  1826.  With  it  is  an  illustration  of  a  Spanish  Sheep  Dog, 
which  looks  like  a  cross  between  a  cur  and  a  bull-dog.  But  it  is  so  completely  out  of 
drawing  that  I  am  led  to  infer  that  it  was  drawn  by  a  wholly  incompetent  artist  and 
that  it  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  original. 

t  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  by  John  Paget,  Esq.,  Vol.  2,  p.  12,  et.  seq. 


FRENCH   AND   MEXICAN   SHEEP   DOGS.  401 

commonly  white,  sometimes  inclined  to  a  reddish  brown,  and 
about  the  size  of  our  Newfoundland  dog.  His  sharp  nose, 
short  erect  ears,  shaggy  coat,  and  bushy  tail  give  him  much 
the  appearance  of  a  wolf;  indeed,  so  great  is  the  resemblance, 
that  1  have  known  a  Hungarian  gentleman  mistake  a  wolf  for 
one  of  his  own  dogs.  Except  to  their  masters,  they  are  so 
savage  that  it  is  unsafe  for  a  stranger  to  enter  the  court  -  yard 
of  a  Hungarian  cottage  without  arms.  I  speak  from  experi- 
ence ;  for  as  I  was  walking  through  the  yard  of  a  post-house, 
where  some  of  these  dogs  were  lying  about,  apparently 
asleep,  one  of  them  crept  after  me,  and  inflicted  a  severe 
wound  on  my  leg,  of  which  I  still  bear  the  marks.  Before 
I  could  turn  round,  the  dog  was  already  far  off;  for,  like  the 
wolf,  they  bite  by  snapping,  but  never  hang  to  the  object  like 
the  bull -dog  or  mastiff.  Their  sagacity  in  driving  and 
guarding  the  sheep  and  cattle,  and  their  courage  in  protecting 
them  from  wolves  and  robbers,  are  highly  praised ;  and  the 
shepherd  is  so  well  aware  of  the  value  of  a  good  one,  that 
it  is  difficult  to  induce  him  to  part  with  it." 

I  have  little  doubt  that  the  Hungarian  dogs  above  de- 
scribed are  the  descendants  of  the  Spanish  ones,  introduced 
into  Hungary  with  the  Merino  sheep,  though  possibly  they 
may  be  somewhat  crossed  by  inter-breeding  with  the  dogs 
of  the  country. 

FRENCH  SHEEP  DOG.  —  Professor  Grognier  gives  the 
following  account  of  this  breed : — "  The  Shepherd's  Dog,  the 
least  removed  from  the  natural  type  of  the  dog,  is  of  a  middle 
size ;  his  ears  short  and  straight ;  the  hair  long,  principally  on 
the  tail,  and  of  a  dark  color  ;  the  tail  is  carried  horizontally 
or  a  little  elevated.  He  is  very  indifferent  to  caresses, 
possessed  of  much  intelligence  and  activity  to  discharge  the 
duties  was  designed.  In  one  or  other  of  its  varieties  it  is 
found  in  every  part  of  France.  Sometimes  there  is  but  a 
single  breed,  in  others  there  are  several  varieties.  It  lives 
and  maintains  its  proper  characteristics,  while  other  races 
often  degenerate.  Everywhere  it  preserves  its  proper  dis- 
tinguishing type.  It  is  the  servant  of  man,  while  other  breeds 
vary  with  a  thousand  circumstances.  It  has  one  appropriate 
mission,  and  that  it  discharges  in  the  most  admirable  way : 
there  is  evidently  a  kind  and  wise  design  in  this." 

THE  MEXICAN  SHEEP  DOG. —  The  following  account  of 
these  noble  dogs  appears  as  a  communication  from  Mr.  J.  H. 


402     -  THE    MEXICAN"    SHEEP    DOG. 

Lyraan,  in  the  third  volume  of  the  American  Agriculturist : 
"  Although  Mr.  Kendall  and  some  other  writers  have 
described  this  wonderful  animal  as  a  cross  of  the  Newfound- 
land dog,  such,  I  think,  cannot  be  the  fact :  on  the  contrary, 
I  have  no  doubt  he  is  a  genuine  descendant  of  the  Alpine 
mastiff,  or  more  properly  Spanish  shepherd  dog,  introduced 
by  them  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  He  is  only  to  be  found 
in  the  sheep-raising  districts  of  New  Mexico.  The  other 
Mexican  dogs,  which  number  more  than  a  thousand  to  one  of 
these  noble  animals,  are  the  results  of  a  cross  of  everything 
under  the  sun  having  any  affinity  to  the  canine  race,  and  even 
of  a  still  nobler  class  of  animals  if  Mexican  stories  are  to 
be  credited.  It  is  believed  in  Mexico,  that  the  countless 
mongrels  of  that  country  owe  their  origin  to  the  assistance 
of  the  various  kinds  of  wolves,  mountain  cats,  lynxes,  and  to 
almost  if  not  every  class  of  four-footed  carnivorous  animals. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  those  who  have  not  seen  them  can  believe 
as  much  as  they  like ;  but  eye-witnesses  can  assert,  that  there 
never  was  a  country  blessed  with  a  greater  and  more  abundant 
variety  of  miserable,  snarling,  cowardly  packs,  than  the 
mongrel  dogs  of  Mexico.  That  country  of  a  surety  would 
be  the  plague-spot  of  this  beautiful  world,  were  it  not  for 
the  redeeming  character  of  the  truly  noble  shepherd  dog, 
endowed  as  it  is  with  almost  human  intellect.  I  have  often 
thought,  when  observing  the  sagacity  of  this  animal,  that  if 
very  many  of  the  human  race  possessed  one-half  of  the  power 
of  inductive  reasoning  which  seems  to  be  the  gift  of  this 
animal,  that  it  would  be  far  better  for  themselves  and  for 
their  fellow  creatures. 

"  The  peculiar  education  of  these  dogs  is  one  of  the  most 
important  and  interesting  steps  pursued  by  the  shepherd. 
His  method  is  to  select  from  a  multitude  of  pups  a  few  of  the 
healthiest  and  finest-looking,  and  to  put  them  to  a  sucking 
ewe,  first  depriving  her  of  her  own  lamb.  By  force,  as  well 
as  from  natural  desire  she  has  to  be  relived  of  the  contents 
of  her  udder,  she  soon  learns  to  look  upon  the  little  interlopers 
with  all  the  affection  she  would  manifest  for  her  own  natural 
offspring.  For  the  first  few  days  the  pups  are  kept  in  the 
hut,  the  ewe  suckling  them  morning  and  evening  only ;  but 
gradually,  as  she  becomes  accustomed  to  their  sight,  she  is 
allowed  to  run  in  a  small  inclosure  with  them  until  she 
becomes  so  pei'fectly  familiar  with  their  appearance  as  to 
take  the  entire  charge  of  them.  After  this  they  are  folded 
with  the  whole  flock  for  a  fortnight  or  so,  they  then  run  about 


THE    MEXICAN   SHEEP    DOG.  403 

during  the  day  with  the  flock,  which  after  a  while  becomes 
so  accustomed  to  them  as  to  be  able  to  distinguish  them  from 
other  dogs  —  even  from  those  of  the  same  litter  which  have 
not  been  nursed  among  them.  The  shepherds  usually  allow 
the  slut  to  keep  one  of  a  litter  for  her  own  particular  benefit ; 
the  balance  are  generally  destroyed. 

"  After  the  pups  are  weaned,  they  never  leave  the 
particular  drove  among  which  they  have  been  reared.  Not 
even  the  voice  of  their  master  can  entice  them  beyond  sight 
of  the  flock ;  neither  hunger  nor  thirst  can  do  it.  I  have  been 
credibly  informed  of  an  instance  where  a  single  dog  having 
charge  of  a  small  flock  of  sheep  was  allowed  to  wander  with 
them  about  the  mountains,  while  the  shepherd  returned  to  his 
village  for  a  few  days,  having  perfect  confidence  in  the  ability 
of  his  dog  to  look  after  the  flock  during  his  absence,  but  with 
a  strange  want  of  foresight  as  to  the  provision  of  the  dog  for 
his  food.  Upon  his  return  to  the  flock,  he  found  it  several 
miles  from  where  left,  but  but  on  the  road  leading  to  the  vil- 
lage, and  the  poor,  faithful  animal  in  the  agonies  of  death, 
dying  of  starvation,  even  in  the  midst  of  plenty ;  yet  the 
flock  had  not  been  harmed  by  him.  A  reciprocal  aflection 
exists  between  them,  which  may  put  to  blush  many  of  the 
human  family.  The  poor  dog  recognized  them  only  as 
brothers  and  dearly  loved  friends ;  he  was  ready  at  all  times 
to  lay  down  his  life  for  them  ;  to  attack  not  only  wolves  and 
mountain  cats,  with  the  confidence  of  victory,  but  even  the 
bear,  when  there  could  be  no  hope.  Of  late  years,  when  the 
shepherds  of  New  Mexico  have  sufiered  so  much  from  Indian 
marauders,  instances  have  frequently  occurred  where  the  dog 
has  not  hesitated  to  attack  his  human  foes,  and  although 
transfixed  with  arrows,  his  indomitable  courage  and  faithful- 
ness have  been  such  as  to  compel  his  assailants  to  pin  him  to 
the  earth  with  spears,  and  hold  him  there  until  dispatched 
with  stones. 

"  In  the  above  instance  the  starving  dog  could  have 
helped  himself  to  one  of  his  little  brother  lambs,  or  could 
have  deserted  the  sheep,  and  very  soon  have  reached  the 
settlements  where  there  was  food  for  him.  But  faithful  even 
unto  death,  he  would  neither  leave  nor  molest  them,  but 
followed  the  promptings  of  his  instinct  to  lead  into  the  settle- 
ment ;  their  unconsciousness  of  his  wants  and  slow  motions 
in  traveling  were  too  much  for  his  exhausting  strength. 

"  These  shepherds  are  very  nomadic  in  character.  They 
are  constantly  moving  about,  their  camp  equipage  consisting 


404  THE   MEXICAN   SHEEP   DOG. 

merely  of  a  kettle  and  a  bag  of  meal ;  their  lodges  are  made 
in  a  few  minutes,  of  branches,  &c.,  thrown  against  cross-sticks. 
They  very  seldom  go  out  in  the  day  -  time  with  their  flocks, 
intrusting  them  entirely  with  their  dogs,  which  faithfully 
return  them  at  night,  never  permitting  any  stragglers  behind 
or  lost.  Sometimes  different  flocks  are  brought  into  the  same 
neighborhood  owing  to  scarcity  of  grass,  when  the  wonderful 
instincts  of  the  shepherds'  dogs  are  most  beautifully  displayed; 
and  to  my  astonishment,  who  have  been  an  eye-witness  of  such 
scenes,  if  two  flocks  approach  within  a  few  yards  of  each 
other,  their  respective  proprietors  will  place  themselves  in  the 
space  between  them,  and  as  is  very  naturally  the  case,  if  any 
adventurous  sheep  should  endeavor  to  cross  over  to  visit  her 
neighbors,  her  dog  protector  kindly  but  firmly  leads  her  back, 
and  it  sometimes  happens,  if  many  make  a  rush  and  succeed 
in  joining  the  other  flock,  the  dogs  under  whose  charge  they 
are,  go  over  and  bring  them  all  out,  but,  strange  to  say,  under 
such  circumstances  they  are  never  opposed  by  the  other  dogs. 
They  approach  the  strange  sheep  only  to  prevent  their  own 
from  leaving  the  flock,  though  they  offer  no  assistance  in 
expelling  the  other  sheep.  But  they  never  permit  sheep  not 
under  canine  protection,  nor  dogs  not  in  charge  of  sheep,  to 
approach  them.  Even  the  same  dogs  which  are  so  freely 
permitted  to  enter  their  flocks  in  search  of  their  own,  are 
driven  away  with  ignominy  if  they  presume  to  approach 
them  without  that  laudable  object  in  view. 

"  Many  anecdotes  could  be  related  of  the  wonderful 
instinct  of  these  dogs.  I  very  much  doubt  if  there  are 
shepherd  dogs  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  except  Spain, 
equal  to  those  of  New  Mexico  in  value.  The  famed  Scotch 
and  English  dogs  sink  into  insignificance  by  the  side  of  them. 
Their  superiority  may  be  owing  to  the  peculiar  mode  of 
rearing  them,  but  they  are  certainly  very  noble  animals, 
naturally  of  large  size,  and  highly  deserving  to  be  introduced 
into  the  United  States.  A  pair  of  them  will  easily  kill  a 
wolf,  and  flocks  under  their  care  need  not  fear  any  common 
enemy  to  be  found  in  our  country." 

Mr.  Kendall  speaks  of  "meeting,  on  the  Grand  Prairie, 
a  flock  numbering  seventeen  thousand,  which  immense  herd 
was  guarded  by  a  very  few  men,  assisted  by  a  large  number 
of  noble  dogs,  which  appeared  gifted  with  the  faculty  of 
keeping  them  together.  There  was  no  running  about,  no 
barking  or  biting  in  their  system  of  tactics  ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  were  continually  walking  up  and  down,  like  faithful 


SOUTH   AMERICAN   SHEEP    DOG.  405 

sentinels,  on  the  other  side  of  the  flock,  and  should  any  sheep 
chance  to  stray  from  its  fellows,  the  dog  on  duty  at  that 
particular  post,  would  walk  gently  up,  take  him  carefully  by 
the  ear  anfl.  lead  him  back  to  the  flock.  Not  the  least  fear 
did  the  sheep  manifest  at  the  approach  of  these  dogs,  and 
there  was  no  occasion  for  it." 

Capt.  Allison  Nelson,  of  Bosque  county,  Texas,  visited 
me  in  1860.  He  had  started  to  bring  me  a  pair  of  these 
Mexican  dogs,  but  unfortunately  permitted  himself  "to  be 
laughed  out  of  it"  —  his  friends  being  under  the  impression 
that  it  would  be  carrying  coals  to  New  Castle  to  take  sheep 
dogs  to  a  region  where  the  Scotch  colley  was  to  be  found  in 
abundance.  Capt.  Nelson  confirmed  Mr.  Lyman's  statement 
in  regard  to  their  sagacity  and  courage.  His  sheep  were 
herded  in  the  Mexican  way,  around  fires  and  not  in  folds. 
He  said  that  after  night-fall  the  dogs  separated  themselves 
from  the  sheep  and  formed  a  cordon  of  sentries  and  pickets 
around  them,— jand  woe  to  the  Avolf  that  approached  too  near 
the  guarded  circle !  The  dogs  crouched  silently  until  he  was 
within  striking  distance,  and  then  sprang  forward  like  arrows 
from  so  many  bows.  Some  made  straight  for  the  wolf  and 
some  took  a  direction  to  cut  off  his  retreat  to  forest  or 
chaparral.  When  overtaken  his  shrift  was  a  short  one. 

Such  dogs  would  be  invaluable  on  the  broad  prairies  of 
the  North-western  States,  to  save  the  labor,  trouble,  and 
sometimes  injury  of  folding  flocks  each  night  in  a  stationary 
and  distant  fold. 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  SHEEP  DOG. —  Similar  to  the  preceding 
in  character  and  habits,  are  the  sheep  dogs  to  be  found  in 
various  parts  of  South  America.  They,  too,  are  undoubtedly 
an  oflfehoot  from  the  Spanish  stem.  The  following  interesting 
account  of  them  is  from  Darwin's  Journal  : 

"  While  staying  at  this  estancia  (in  Banda  Oriental,)  I  was 
amused  with  what  I  saw  and  heard  of  the  shepherd  dogs  of 
the  country.  When  riding  it  is  a  common  thing  to  meet  a 
large  flock  of  sheep  guarded  by  one  or  two  dogs,  at  the 
distance  of  some  miles  from  any  house  or  man.  I  often 
wondered  how  so  firm  a  friendship  had  been  established. 
The  method  of  education  consists  in  separating  the  puppy, 
when  very  young,  from  the  bitch,  and  in  accustoming  it  to 
its  future  companions.  A  ewe  is  held  three  or  four  times 
a  day  for  the  little  thing  to  suck,  and  a  nest  of  wool  is  made 
for  it  in  the  sheep -pen.  At  no  time  is  it  allowed  to  associate 


406  SOUTH    AMERICAN    AKD    OTHER    SHEEP    DOGS. 

with  other  dogs,  or  with  the  children  of  the  family.  The 
puppy,  moreover,  is  generally  castrated :  so  that  when  grown 
up,  it  can  scarcely  have  any  feelings  in  common  with  the  rest 
of  its  kind.  From  this  education  it  has  no  wish  to  lea've 
the  flock,  and  just  as  another  dog  will  defend  its  master, 
man,  so  will  these  the  sheep.  It  is  amusing  to  observe, 
when  approaching  a  flock,  how  the  dog  immediately  advances 
barking — and  the  sheep  all  close  in  his  rear  as  if  around  the 
oldest  ram.  These  dogs  are  also  easily  taught  to  bring  home 
the  flock  at  a  certain  time  in  the  evening.  Their  most 
troublesome  fanlt  when  young  is  their  desire  of  playing  with 
the  sheep,  for  in  their  play,  they  sometimes  gallop  their  poor 
subjects  most  unmercifully.  The  shepherd  dog  comes  to 
the  house  every  day  for  some  meat,  and  immediately  it  is 
given  to  him  he  skulks  away  as  if  ashamed  of  himself.  On 
these  occasions  the  house  dogs  are  very  tyrannical,  and  the 
least  of  them  will  attack  and  pursue  the  stranger.  The  minute, 
however,  the  latter  has  reached  the  flock,  he  turns  round  and 
begins  to  bark,  and  then  all  the  house  dogs  take  very  quickly 
to  their  heels.  In  a  similar  manner  a  whole  pack  of  hungry 
wild  dogs  will  scarcely  ever  (and  I  was  told  by  some,  never,) 
venture  to  attack  a  flock  guarded  even  by  one  of  these  faithful 
shepherds.  The  whole  account  appears  to  me  a  curious 
instance  of  the  pliability  of  the  affections  of  the  dog  race ; 
and  yet,  whether  wild,  or  however  educated,  with  a  mutual 
feeling  of  respect  and  fear  for  those  that  are  fulfilling  their 
instinct  of  association.  For  we  can  understand  on  no 
principle  the  wild  dogs  being  driven  away  by  the  single  one 
with  its  flock,  except  that  they  consider,  from  some  confused 
notion,  that  the  one  thus  associated  gains  power,  as  if  in 
company  with  its  own  kind.  F.  Cuvier  has  observed  that  all 
animals  which  enter  into  domestication  consider  man  as  a 
member  of  their  society,  and  thus  they  fulfill  their  instinct  of 
association.  In  the  above  case  the  shepherd  dogs  rank  the 
sheep  as  their  brethren ;  and  the  wild  dogs,  though  know- 
ing that  the  individual  sheep  are  not  dogs,  but  are  good  to 
eat,  yet  partly  consent  to  this  view,  when  seeing  them  in  a 
flock,  with  a  shepherd  dog  at  their  head." 

OTHER  LARGE  RACES  OF  SHEEP  DOGS.  — There  are  one 
or  two  fine  species  in  France,  as  those  of  Brie  and  Auvergne. 
In  a  letter  from  G.  W.  Lafayette,  to  John  S.  Skinner,  Esq., 
the  latter  are  pronounced  equal  to  Spanish  dogs.*  Large, 

*  See  'Farmers'  Library,  Vol.  I,  p.  4C5. 


THE    ENGLISH    SHEEP    DOG. 


407 


powerful  races,  possessing  the  same  general  characteristics, 
are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  country  excepting  our  own, 
where  the  fine-wooled  breeds  of  sheep  have  been  extensively- 
introduced.  "With  a  commerce  extending  to  all  the  mari- 
time nations  of  the  world,  it  is  singular  that  so  little  pains 
have  been  taken  to  introduce  them. 

THE  ENGLISH  SHEEP  DOG. —  The  following  cut  presents 
an  accurate  portrait  of  an  animal  of  this  breed,  imported  by 
Mr.  B.  Gates,  of  Gap  Grove,  Lee  county,  Illinois.  It  is  taken 
from  The  Farmer's  Library : 


DKOVER  S    DOG. 

The  Drover's  Dog,  or  English  Sheep  Dog,  or  Butcher's 
Dog — for  by  all  these  different  names  is  he  known  —  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  Theodore  C.  Peters,  of  Darien,  New  York, 
in  third  volume  of  the  American  Agriculturist,  1 844  : 

"  I  purchased  a  bitch  of  the  tailless  species,  known  as  the 
English  drover  _dog,  in  Smithfield  market,  some  two  years 
ago.  That  species  is  much  used  upon  the  downs,  and  is  a 
larger  and  fleeter  dog  than  the  Colley.  We  raised  two  litters 
from  her,  got  by  Jack,  [a  Colley,]  and  I  think  the  cross  will 


408  THE     SCOTCH    SHEEP    DOG. 

make  a  very  valuable  dog  for  all  the  purposes  of  the  farmer. 
They  learn  easily,  are  very  active,  and  so  far  they  fully  answer 
our  expectations. 

"A  neighbor  to  whom  we  gave  a  "bitch  of  the  first  litter, 
would  tell  her  to  go  into  such  a  lot  and  see  if  there  were  any 
stray  cattle  there ;  and  if  there  were  any  there,  detect  them 
and  drive  them  down  to  the  house.  He  kept  his  cattle  in  the 
lot,  and  it  was  full  eighty  rods  from  the  house.  The  dog  was 
not  then  a  year  old.  We  had  one  of  the  same  litter,  which 
we  learned  to  go  after  cows  so  well,  that  we  had  only  to  tell 
him  it  was  time  to  bring  the  cows,  and  he  would  set  off  for 
them  from  any  part  of  the  farm,  and  bring  them  into  the 
yard  as  well  as  a  boy.  I  think  they  would  be  invaluable  to  a 
farmer  on  the  prairies.  After  raising  two  litters,  we  sent  the 
bitch  to  Illinois.  I  hope  farmers  will  take  more  pains  in 
getting  the  shepherd  dog.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  training. 
Our  old  one  we  obtained  when  a  pup,  and  trained  him  without 
any  trouble,  and  without  the  help  of  another  dog.  Any 
man  who  has  patience,  and  any  dog  knowledge  at  all,  can 
train  one  of  this  breed  to  do  all  that  he  can  desire  of  a  dog." 

THE  SCOTCH  SHEEP  DOG  OK  COLLET. —  The  light,  active, 
sagacious  Colley  admits  of  no  superior  —  scarcely  an  equal  — 
where  it  is  his  business  merely  to  manage  his  flock,  and  not 
to  defend  them  from  beasts  larger  than  himself.  Mr.  Hogg 
says  that  a  "  single  shepherd  and  his  dog  will  accomplish 
more  in  gathering  a  flock  of  sheep  from  a  Highland  farm  than 
twenty  shepherds  could  do  without  dogs.  Neither  hunger, 
fatigue,  nor  the  worst  treatment  will  drive  him  from  his 
master's  side,  and  he  will  follow  him  through  every  hardship 
without  murmur  or  repining." 

The  same  well  known  writer,  in  a  letter  in  Blackwood's 
Magazine,  gives  a  most  glowing  description  of  the  qualities 
of  his  Colley,  "  Sirrah."  One  night  a  flock  of  lambs,  under 
his  care,  frightened  at  something,  made  what  we  call  in 
America  a  regular  stampede,  scattering  over  the  hills  in 
several  different  bodies.  "  Sirrah,"  exclaimed  Hogg  in 
despair,  "they're  a'  awa!"  The  dog  dashed  off  through 
the  darkness.  After  spending  with  his  assistants  the  whole 
night  in  a  fruitless  search  after  the  fugitives,  Mr.  Hogg 
commenced  his  return  to  his  master's  house.  Coming  to  a 
deep  ravine,  they  found  Sirrah  in  charge,  as  they  first 
supposed,  of  one  of  the  scattered  divisions,  but  what  was 


THE    OOLLEY. 


409 


their  joyful  surprise  to  find  that  not  a  lamb  of  the  whole 
flock  was  missing! 


/ 


THE    COLLEY. 


Mr.  Peters,  in  the  same  paper  from  which  we  have  just 
quoted,  thus  speaks  of  the  Colley : —  "  I  think  the  shepherd 
dog  the  most  valuable  of  his  species,  certainly  for  the  farmer. 
Our  dog  .Tack,  a  thorough-bred  Scotch  Colley,  has  been  worth 
$100  a  year  in  managing  our  small  flock  of  sheep,  usually 
about  seven  hundred  in  number.  He  has  saved  us  more  than 
that  in  time  in  running  after  them.  After  sheep  have  been 
once  broken  in  by,  and  become  used  to  the  dog,  it  is  but 
little  trouble  to  manage  them ;  one  man  and  the  dog  will 
do  more  than  five  men  in  driving,  yarding,  &c.  Let  any 
man  once  possess  a  good  dog,  he  will  never  do  without  one 
again. 

"  The  sagacity  of  the  shepherd's  dog  is  wonderful ;  and  if 

I  had  not  seen  so  much  myself,  I  could  hardly  credit  all  we 

read  about  them.     It  is  but  a  few  days  since  I  was  reading 

in  a  Scotch  paper  a  wonderful  performance  of  one  of  these 

J8 


410  THE   COLLET — A   DRAWBACK. 

Colley  dogs.  It  seems  the  master  of  the  bitch  purchased  at 
a  fair  some  eighty  sheep,  and  having  occasion  to  stay  a  day 
longer,  sent  them  forward  and  directed  his  faithful  Colley  to 
drive  them  home,  a  distance  of^about  seventeen  miles.  The 
poor  bitch  when  a  few  miles  on  the  road  dropped  two  whelps ; 
but  faithful  to  her  charge,  she  drove  the  sheep  a  mile  or  two 
farther  —  then  allowing  them  to  stop,  she  returned  for  her 
pups,  which  she  carried  some  two  miles  in  advance  of  the 
sheep,  and  thus  she  continued  to  do,  alternately  carrying  her 
own  young  ones,  and  taking  charge  of  the  flock,  till  she 
reached  home.  The  manner  of  her  acting  on  this  occasion 
was  gathered  by  the  shepherd  from  various  persons  who  had 
observed  her  on  the  road.  On  reaching  and  delivering  her 
charge,  it  was  found  the  two  pups  were  dead.  In  this 
extremity  the  instinct  of  the  poor  brute  was  yet  more  remark- 
able ;  for,  going  immediately  to  a  rabbit  brae  in  the  vicinity, 
she  dug  out  of  the  earth  two  young  rabbits,  which  she  deposited 
on  some  straw  in  a  barn,  and  continued  to  suckle  them  for 
some  time,  until  they  were  unluckily  killed  by  one  of  the  farm 
tenants.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  next  day  she  set  off 
to  the  place  where  she  left  her  master,  whom  she  met 
returning  when  about  thirteen  miles  from  home." 

I  have  to  make  a  sad  draw-back  on  these  statements.  It  is 
well  known  in  the  region  of  New  York  where  I  reside,  and 
where  the  Colley  dog  is  quite  common,  that  it  is  sometimes  — 
under  the  instruction  of  vicious  associates  perhaps  —  taught 
in  its  youth  to  kill  sheep :  and  when  this  occurs,  it  is  pro- 
verbial that  the  sheep  has  no  other  so  fell  and  destructive 
canine  enemy.  Its  extreme  activity,  and  the  keenness  of  its 
bite,  causes  a  wholesale  slaughter.  Two  dogs  of  this  kind 
killed  eight  Merino  ewes  for  me  this  year,  and  had  they  not 
fortunately  been  detected  at  the  outset  of  their  attack,  they 
would  soon  probably  have  added  fifty  to  the  number  of  their 
victims.  When  first  seen  they  were  darting  about,  biting 
one  sheep  after  another  —  a  single  touch  of  their  teeth  being 
apparently  sufficient  to  strip  off  half  the  skin  —  as  if  they 
were  committing  the  havoc  solely  for  their  amusement,  and 
were  prompted  neither  by  hunger  nor  thirst.  Indeed,  I 
ascertained  from  their  owners  that  they  had  both  been  well 
fed  within  an  hour  of  the  time  of  their  entering  the  flock. 
They  were  moreover  habitually  well  fed  dogs,  and  were  in 
excellent  case.  I  think  the  mongrel  Colley  learns  to  kill 
sheep  as  readily  as  a  cur ;  but  whether  this  is  true  of  the  pure 
blood  dog,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say. 


ACCUSTOMING  THE   SHEEP  TO  THE   DOG.  4ll 

ACCUSTOMING  THE  SHEEP  TO  THE  DOG.  —  It  is  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  a  trained  sheep  dog  will  manage  any  strange 
flock,  however  wild  and  unaccustomed  to  such  company. 
The  sheep  must  be  gradually  made  acquainted  with,  and 
accustomed  to,  the  dog.  They  must  know — and  they  will 
readily  learn  it  —  that  he  is  their  friend,  their  guardian  and 
protector,  instead  of  that  hereditary  enemy  which  their 
instinct  teaches  them  to  fly  from.  A  want  of  knowledge  of 
this  fact  has  frequently  led  to  disappointment  and  disgust,  to 
a  giving  up  of  the  valuable  dog  which  it  has  cost  pains  and 
money  to  procm-e.  My  friend,  the  late  Col.  John  S.  Skinner, 
related  to  me  a  ludicrous  accident  which  befel  President 
Jefferson,  or  rather  his  sheep  dogs,  when  he  undertook  to 
show  off  some  newly  imported  ones,  a  la  philosopher, 
Avithout  being  apprized  of  the  above-mentioned  fact. 
The  tale  is  told  in  my  Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  South.  The 
comedy  turns  on  the  fact  that  the  great  political  sage  took 
out  some  admiring  visitors  to  witness  the  wonderful  exploits 
of  his  dogs :  "  let "  them  "  slip  "  on  some  raw  ovine  subjects, 
whereupon  the  latter  dashed  themselves  over  precipices,  &c. : 
and  the  "  valuable  dog  which  it  had  cost  pains  and  money  to 
procure,"  was  so  mortified  at  the  proceeding  that  he  ran  the 
other  way,  was  never  again  heard  of,  and  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  running  to  this  day ! 

As  in  the  case  of  so  many  "  good  stories,"  there  was  not 
a  word  of  truth  in  it !  Some  years  after  my  publication  of  it, 
I  chanced  to  be  in  conversation  with  Mr.  Jefferson's  family 
on  this  very  subject  and  learned  that  the  dogs  Avere  sent  to 
him  from  France  —  that  they  were  admirably  broken  and 
possessed  almost  human  intelligence  —  that  neither  of  them 
ever  brought  man  or  beast  to  grief,  except  that  the  bitch, 
who  took  it  upon  herself  to  herd  the  hens  every  night,  insisted 
on  doing  it  about  half  an  hour  before  the  latter  Avished  to 
retire  for  the  night  —  and  they  sometimes  made  loud  com- 
plaints on  the  subject! 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX    A  —  (page  122.) 
ORIGIN  OF  THE  IMPROVED  INPANTADOS, 

To  gratify  the  curiosity  of  some  thorough  -  paced  Merino  sheep 
breeders,  as  well  as  to  illustrate  the  rapid  "march  of  improvement," 
when  the  right  animals  are  bred  together,  I  will  present  a  few  facts 
culled  from  a  large  body  of  notes  in  my  possession,  giving  full 
descriptions  of  the  leading  animals  named  in  the  pedigrees  on  page 
121,  and  in  the  remainder  of  Mr.  Hammond's  flock. 

"  Old  Black,"  was  bought  of  S.  Atwood,  by  Mr.  Sanforcl,  of  Orwell, 
and  was  owned  and  used  by  him  and  Mr.  Hammond  together.  He 
weighed  about  135  Ibs.,  and  yielded  about  14  Ibs.  of  wool.  (Unless  other- 
wise stated,  all  fleeces  named  here  will  be  understood  to  be  unwashed.)  He 
was  long,  tall,  flat-ribbed,  rather  long  in  the  neck  and  head,  strong-boned, 
a  little  roach  -  backed,  deep  -  chested,  moderately  wrinkled :  his  wool 
was  about  \\  inches  long,  of  medium  thickness,  extremely  yolky,  and 
dark  colored  externally :  face  a  little  bare,  and  not  much  wool  on  shanks. 
He  did  not  possess  a  very  strong  constitution.  He  proved  an  admirable 
sire  of  ewes,  but  was  not  so  good  for  rams. 

"  Old  Matchless "  run  well  into  the  blood  of  Mr.  Atwood's  lighter 
colored  sub-family,  though  he  himself  was  darkish  colored.  (Mr.  Atwood 
had  either  found  two  such  sub-families  in  the  Humphreys'  sheep,  or  he 
had  gradually  created  and  established  them  in  his  flock  to  attain  certain 
breeding  objects :  I  think  the  latter  was  the  case.)  He  weighed  about 
150  Ibs.,  was  a  sheep  of  excellent  form,  commanding  appearance,  and 
strong  constitution.  He  yielded  lOf  Ibs.  of  wool  when  a  lamb,  but  his 
usual  fleece  afterwards  was  only  12  or  13  Ibs.  His  fleece  was  about  two 
inches  long,  coarsish,  of  medium  thickness,  pretty  yolky—  but  thin  and 
short  on  the  belly.  He  was  not  well  covered  on  the  head,  and  was  bare 
on  the  shanks.  He  got  large,  strong,  but  not  very  well  covered  lambs. 
He  was  not  as  good  a  stock  ram  as  Old  Black.  He  died  early. 

"Wooster"  weighed  about  100  Ibs.  He  was  well  shaped  and 
compact,  with  short  legs,  a  short,  thick  head,  and  neck  of  medium 
length  and  thickness.  He  was  very  heavily  wrinkled  under  the  neck, 
and  also  at  the  elbow  and  tail.  His  wool  was  nearly  two  inches  long,  quite 
thick,  very  dark  and  yolky.  He  was  well  covered  on  belly  and  foretop, 
and  middling  well  on  the  face.  He  yielded  19^  Ibs.  of  wool  at  two  years 
old.  He  was  an  excellent  stock  getter,  and  bred  extremely  well  with 


APPENDIX   A.  413 

the  light  colored  ewes.  He  sold  a  lamb  for  $300,  but  Mr.  H.  continued 
to  use  him.  (See  page  113.) 

"  Old  Greasy"  weighed  about  110  Ibs.  He  was  light  boned  and  rather 
long  and  thin  in  every  part,  though  the  rib  was  tolerably  full.  He  was 
but  little  wrinkled,  having  simply  the  cross  on  the  brisket,  the  convolu- 
tion of  skin  under  the  chops  called  by  many  "the  double,"  and  a  narrow 
dewlap  between  them.  He  was  exceedingly  yolky,  and  his  wool  very 
long  and  thick  for  so  yolky  a  sheep.  The  wool  was  about  2£  inches  long, 
was  fine  and  even,  covered  belly  and  foretop  fairly,  but  not  the  shanks, 
and  the  fleece  weighed  22  Ibs.  His  constitution  was  medium,  and  he  was 
an  excellent  stock  getter,  so  far  as  fleece  was  concerned.  He  was  used 
to  darken  the  produce  of  the  light  colored  ewes. 

"Old  Wrinkly"  weighed  from  125  to  130  Ibs.,  and  was  a  strong- 
boned,  low,  compact  sheep,  with  round  carcass  and  short  legs,  short 
thick  head  and  neck,  but  was  a  little  too  light  in  the  hips.  He  was  very 
heavily  wrinkled  over  and  under  neck,  and  also  about  elbow,  tail,  thigh 
and  flank.  His  flank  was  deep  and  tail  broad.  His  fleece  was  thick, 
about  two  inches  long,  of  medium  quality,  not  entirely  even,  and 
showed  a  little  jar  on  the  neck  wrinkles.  He  was  well  covered  on  head 
and  belly,  and  wooled  to  the  foot.  His  fleece  weighed  23  Ibs.  It  was 
rather  light  colored,  though  very  yolky.  His  yolk  was  yellow.  The  wool 
opened  ^vell.  He  had  a  strong  constitution,  and  was  a  good  sire  ram. 
He  was  sold  for  $300. 

"Little  Wrinkly"  weighed  about  110  Ibs.  He  had  bones  of  good 
size,  was  about  medium  in  respect  to  compactness,  and  was  round  in 
the  rib.  He  was  much  less  wrinkly  than  Old  Wrinkly,  and  was  inferior 
to  him  in  general  appearance.  His  fleece  was'very  fine  and  even,  and 
possessed  a  good  deal  of  style.  It  was  of  medium  length,  (two  inches 
long,)  thick,  and  coated  with  dark  external  gum.  He  was  as  yolky  as 
Old  Greasy,  and  his  yolk  white.  His  fleece  weighed  about  19|  Ibs.,  a 
good  deal  of  weight  considering  its  quality.  He  would  not  have  been 
used  had  Long  Wool  or  Old  Greasy  been  alive ;  yet  he  proved  a  good 
stock  ram,  in  some  cases,  getting  Sweepstakes  and  two  large,  very 
heavy  fleeced  ewes.  He  got  them  when  a  lamb.  He  died  at  three. 

"  Sweepstakes  "  weighs  about  140  Ibs.  Taken  all  in  all  he  is  about  as 
perfect  a  formed  Merino  ram  as  was  ever  seen,  and  defective  in  no 
essential  particular.  His  wool  is  2-J-  inches  long,  fine,  extremely  even,  and 
does  not  contain  a  particle  of  jar.  His  belly,  head,  etc.,  are  admirably 
covered,  and  he  is  wooled  profusely  to  the  feet  all  roui«4.  He  has  no 
external  gum,  is  medium  in  point  of  color,  but  possesses  abundance  of 
thin,  yellowish  yolk.  His  wool  opens  brilliantly  and  with  a  beautiful 
style.  He  has  produced  a  single  year's  fleece  of  27  Ibs.  His  constitution 
is  powerful.  He  impresses  his  own  characteristics  unusually  strongly 
on  his  get.  He  took  the  first  premium  of  the  Vermont  State  Agricultu- 
ral Society  as  a  lamb,  as  a  yearling,  and  as  a  grown  ram.  In  1861  he  met 
several  of  the  best  rams  of  the  State  (the  best  of  his  competitors  were 
got  by  himself)  in  a  sweepstakes,  and  was  victorious.  Mr.  Hammond 
has  been  several  times  offered  $2,500  for  him. 

"  California,"  the  next  named  ram  in  the  pedigree  published  at  page 
121,  was  the  property  of  Henry  Hammond,  as  is  his  dam  Beauty  1st. 
(His  stock  is  the  same  with  that  of  his  uncle,  Edwin  Hammond, 
being  half  of  the  same  common  flock.)  California  was  sold  for  $1,000, 
and  I  think  was  less  than  a  year  old  when  sold.  I  have  no  descrip- 


414  APPENDIX   A. 

tion  of  him.  His  dam  brings  to  him  and  to  Gold  Drop  the  blood 
(individual  blood)  of  several  very  celebrated  animals  which  do  not 
appear  in  the  pedigree  of  Sweepstakes,  viz.,  Young  Matchless,  the 
Lawrence  Ewe,  Long  Wool  and  Old  Queen. 

"Young  Matchless"  was  in  the  light  colored  line.  He  weighed 
about  150  Ibs.  He  was  a  model  of  strength,  compactness,  symmetry 
and  showiness.  He  had  immense  constitution.  He  was  well  wrinkled 
under  the  neck,  at  the  elbow,  thigh  and  tail.  His  fleece  was  about  2J 
inches  long,  extremely  thick,  of  medium  quality,  of  good  style,  even  and 
had  no  jar.  It  covered  him  well  on  belly,  head,  legs,  etc.  He  was 
particularly  well  wooled  over  the  eye.  He  was  rather  light  colored.  He 
was  less  yolky  than  any  ram  heretofore  described,  and  his  yolk  was  white. 
His  fleece  weighed  23  Ibs.,  and  is  believed  to  have  contained  more  pure 
wool  than  that  of  any  other  ram  Mr.  Hammond  ever  owned  except 
Sweepstakes.  He  gave  his  get  great  length  and  thickness  of  wool,  and 
the  great  round  carcass  so  conspicuous  in  the  flock.  He  took  the  first 
State  premium,  &c.  A  half  interest  in  him  and  Greasy  was  sold  to 
Win.  R.  Sanford  for  $500. 

"The  Lawrence  Ewe"  combined  the  size,  beauty,  constitutional 
vigor  and  wooliness  of  both  her  sire  and  dam.  She  weighed  about  110 
Ibs.,  and  did  not  lack  a  single  property  of  excellence  or  showiness. 
She  was  dark  externally,  yolk  yellowish,  and  had  some  external  gum. 
Her  fleece  was  of  good  quality,  and  weighed  14  Ibs.  She  was  sold  for 
$600,  which  was  esteemed  a  remarkable  price  at  that  day.  She  was  the 
dam  of  two  very  famous  rams,  viz.,  Long  Wool  and  the  Lawrence  Ram. 

"Long  Wool"  took  something  of  his  form  from  his  sire,  and  accord- 
ingly was  not  as  low,  compact  and  round  as  his  immediate  maternal 
ancestors,  but  he  was  considerably  better  formed  than  Old  Greasy.  He 
weighed  from  125  to  130  Ibs.  His  wrinkles,  &c.,  resembled  his  sire's, 
but  he  had  more  of  them,  and  some  small  ones  about  elbow  and  tail. 
His  fleece  was  about  2$  inches  long,  very  thick,  yolk  white  and  brilliant, 
style  excellent.  He  was  wooled  to  the  feet  all  round,  well  wooled  on 
the  belly  and  head.  He  was  not  quite  as  well  wooled  over  eye  as 
Young  Matchless  or  the  Queen  familv — but  did  more  to  improve  this 
point  among  the  Queens  than  any  other  ram.  His  fleece  was  dark 
colored.  No  memorandum  is  preserved  of  its  weight:  it  was  over  20 
Ibs.  He  was  an  admirable  sire  for  ewe  lambs  —  the  best,  perhaps,  Mr. 
H.  ever  had.  They  were  long  and  thick  wooled,  dark  externally,  and 
particularly  well  covered.  He  improved  the  flock,  especially  in 
wool  over  the'"'eye.  His  lambs  were  also  low,  round,  thick  and  of 
strong  constitution.  Mr.  H.  declined  $500  for  him  when  two  years  old. 
He  was  killed  early,  in  fighting. 

"  The  Lawrence  Ram  is  not  named  in  the  pedigrees,  published  on 
page  121,  bat  has  been  one  of  the  most  celebrated  rams  of  the  flock.  He 
was  got  by  Old  Wrinkly,  dam,  the  Lawrence  ewe.  He  weighed  about  130 
Ibs.  He  was  a  short,  stout,  heavy-boned,  low  sheep,  with  a*  remarkably 
short  and  heavy  neck,  and  a  broad  loin  and  rump.  He  had  a  powerful 
constitution.  He  was  heavily  wrinkled  in  front,  with  folds  at  elbow, 
tail,  thigh  and  flank.  He  was  dark  colored  and  yolky.  His  wool  was  of 
medium  length,  (two  inches,)  very  thick,  of  medium  quality,  even,  and 
the  yolk  yellowish.  He  was  well  covered  on  face,  belly,  &c.  His  fleece 
weighed  24  Ibs.  He  was  a  capital  sire  for  both  ram  and  ewe  lambs. 
The  heaviest  fleeced  ewes  now  in  Mr.  H.'s  flock  were  got  by  him.  He 
was  sold  in  his  old  age  for  $200. 


APPENDIX   A.  415 

"Old  Qneen"  is  but  two  removes  from  the  "First  Choice  of  Old 
Ewes,"  and  is  considered  by  her  owner  the  mother  of  more  valuable 
sheep  than  any  other  ewe  ever  owned  by  him. 

"First  Choice  of  Old  Ewes"  was  of  the  medium  size  of  Atwood 
ewes  of  that  day,  weighing  about  80  Ibs.  She  was  fine  in  the  bone,  of 
about  medium  length,  with  a  short,  wide  head.  Her  general  form  was 
compact,  and  good,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  flatness  in  the  ribs. 
She  was  but  little  wrinkled,  having  only  the  cross  and  double  with  a 
dewlap  between.  Her  wool  was  hardly  two  inches  long,  but  was  fine, 
even,  thick,  dark,  and  well  filled  with  white  yolk.  It  covered  her  well  on 
belly,  but  she  was  bare  on  the  forehead  compared  with  the  sheep  of  the 
present  flock,  and  had  not  much  below  the  knees.  Her  washed  fleece 
weighed  about  five  pounds.  She  proved  an  extraordinary  breeder, 
and  her  line — the  "dark  or  Queen  line"  —  has  always  been  carefully 
preserved. 

The  " Light  Colored  Ewe"  weighed  85  or  90  Ibs.  She  was  shortish, 
very  square  built,  with  a  short,  thick  head  and  neck,  medium  length  of 
leg,  and  rounder  ribs  than  most  of  the  Atwood  sheep.  She  was  high 
headed,  had  the  cross  and  double  with  dewlap  between  and  under  the 
chops.  Her  wool  was  about  2£  inches  long,  very  thick,  and  covered  her 
well  on  the  face  and  belly.  She  was  wooled  to  the  foot.  Her  fleece  was 
even  but  not  very  fine.  It  was  light  colored  and  rather  destitute  of  yolk. 
Her  fleece  weighed  about  six  Ibs.  washed.  She  was  an  excellent  breeder, 
but  not  regarded  as  equal  to  the  First  Choice  of  Old  Ewes,  in  this 
particular.  She  was  the  origin  of  the  "  light  colored  line,"  always  pre- 
served in  the  flock  to  interbreed  with  the  "  dark  or  Queen  line." 

"First  Choice  of  Ewe  Lambs,"  at  maturity,  weighed  from  90  Ibs. 
to  95  Ibs.  She  was  strong  boned,  low,  short,  and  thick  in  every  part 
except  the  neck,  which  was  slightly  too  long  and  thin.  Her  ribs  were 
well  arched.  She  had  the  cross  on  the  brisket,  but  no  double  or  dewlap, 
and  was  smooth  under  the  chops.  She  was  regarded,  however,  as  the 
best  formed  sheep,  on  the  whole,  bought  of  Mr.  Atwood,  and  also  the 
best  covered  one.  She  was  well  wooled  on  the  belly,  head  and  shanks. 
Her  fleece  was  about  two  inches  long,  dark  externally,  and  well  filled 
with  white  yolk.  Crossed  in  the  Queen  line,  she  produced  Wooster: 
crossed  in  the  light  colored  line,  she  produced  the  Lawrence  ewe.  She 
died  early.  Her  blood  was  lost  to  the  flock  by  the  sale  of  "Wooster  and 
the  Lawrence  ewe  —  but  brought  back  by  Mr.  Hammond's  putting  ewes 
to  the  Wooster  ram,  and  by  his  subsequently  re-purchasing  the  Law- 
rence ram. 

I  have  not  space  here  to  follow  out  the  course  of  breeding  between 
the  three  lines  which  has  led  to  such  extraordinary  improvement.  The 
best  sheep  of  the  flock  have  always  been  produced  by  interbreeding 
between  them.  The  mode  in  which  Sweepstakes  unites  the  three  strains 
will  be  seen  from  his  pedigree  at  page  121.  "21  per  Cent.,"  so  often 
named  in  this  work,  unites  them  through  some  of  the  most  celebrated 
animals  of  each  line.  He  was  got  by  the  Lawrence  ram;  dam,  Old 
Tulip,  an  own  sister  of  Old  Queen.  The  "  Thousand  Dollar  Ram  "  now 
owned  by  Mr.  Asahel  F.  Wilcox,  of  Fayetteville,  New  York,  was  got  by 
Sweepstakes  out  of  Old  Queen's  dam.  "  Wrinkly  3d,"  now  owned  by 
Capt.  Davis  Cossit,  Onondaga,  New  York,  was  got  by  Sweepstakes, 
dam,  Countess,  by  Little  Wrinkly— Countess'  dam  in  the  light  colored 
line,  &c.,  &c. 

The  first  great  change  in  Mr.  Hammond's  weight  of  fleeces  was  made 


416  APPENDIX    B. 

by  Youn'j  Matchless;  and  he  equally  improved  the  form,  size  and 
constitution.  His  only  deficiency  was  in  yolk,  and  consequently  in  dark 
color,  and  his  get  resembled  him  in  that  particular. 

"  Old  Greasy"  and  "Long  Wool,"  and  particularly  the  latter,  made  a 
marked  improvement  in  the  fleece.  They  added  materially  to  its 
yolkiness,  and  consequently  to  its  dark,  external  color,  without  either 
shortening  it  or  rendering  it  thinner;  and  they  also  added  to  its  fineness 
and  style.  They  both  gave  better  forms  to  their  progeny  than  their  own, 
but  Old  Qreasy's  get  were  sometimes  deficient  in  this  particular.  Long 
"Wool  did  not  deteriorate  the  form,  particularly  in  his  female  get.  Old 
Greasy  gave  a  good,  and  Long  Wool  an  excellent,  constitution  to  his 
descendants. 

"  Old  Wrinkly "  rendered  the  flock  more  stocky,  and  wrinkly,  and 
shorter  in  the  legs,  head,  &c. 

The  "  Lawrence  ram "  got  large,  strong,  round  carcassed,  and  well- 
formed  offspring  —  possessing  a  remarkable  constitution.  His  get  on 
ewes  by  Greasy  and  Long  Wool  were  as  dark  colored  as  their  dams,  and 
had  heavier  fleeces. 

"  Sweepstakes  "  has  done  much  to  harmonize  the  different  strains  of 
blood  and  give  uniformity  to  the  flock  —  improving  defects  where  they 
existed.  In  the  external  color  of  their  wool,  he,  21  per  Cent.,  and  the 
Thousand  Dollar  Ram,  are  about  midway  between  the  light  and  dark 
colored  lines  — the  point  where  weight  of  fleece  and  bodily  development 
are  best  combined. 


APPENDIX    B  —  (page  128.) 
OBIGDT  OP  THE  IMPBOVED  PATTLAES, 

THE  following  is  a  full,  and  it  is  believed,  accurate  account  of 
the  crosses  of  blood  contained  in  some  of  the  principal  improved 
Paular  stocks  of  the  present  day,  with  such  notices  as  I  could  obtain  of 
the  leading  animals  in  the  establishment  of  the  crossed  family : 

In  1844,  Judge  M.  W.  C.  Wright,  of  Shoreham,  Vermont,  bought  a 
ram  bred  by  Mr.  Stephen  Atwood,  and  brought  by  him  to  the  New 
York  State  Fair,  held  that  year  at  Poughkeepsie.  Mr.  Hammond,  of 
Vermont,  and  myself,  were  present  at  the  purchase.  My  recollections 
of  him  entirely  coincide  with  those  of  Judge  Wright,  and  his  subsequent 
owners,  Messrs.  Elithorp  and  Remelee.  He  did  not  weigh,  with  his 
fleece  off,  to  exceed  100  Ibs.  "  He  was,"  Mr.  Elithorp  writes  me, "  a  low, 
short-legged,  square-built  sheep,  short-bodied,  short  and  rather  heavy- 
necked,  with  a  few  moderate-sized  folds  about  the  neck,  and  a  brace  or 
fold  [of  pendulous  skin]  extending  from  his  hind-leg  to  his  flank.  He 
was  flat  on  the  back,  had  a  deep  chest,  and  possessed  a  good  constitu- 
tion." His  fleece  was  fine,  glossy,  even,  highly  crimped,  thick  and  "  long 
for  an  Atwood  sheep  in  those  days."  It  covered  his  head  and  belly 
unusually  well,  and  extended  to  his  hoofs,  "  making  his  legs  look  short 
and  heavy."  His  yolk  was  abundant,  entirely  fluid,  and  white  hi  color ; 
and  his  external  color  was  very  dark  for  a  sheep  unhoused  in  summer. 


APPENDIX   B.  417 

His  fleece  in  1845,  of  two  years'  growth,  weighed  22  Ibs.  unwashed ;  his 
subsequent  fleeces  ranged  from  18  Ibs.  to  15  Ibs.,  and  averaged  about  14 
Ibs.  He  was  an  admirable  sire  ram  with  ewes  of  all  descriptions,  stamp- 
ing his  individual  characteristics  strongly  on  his  progeny. 

On  his  return  with  this  sheep  to  Vermont,  Judge  Wright  sold  him 
to  Prosper  Elithorp,  of  Bridport,  and  Loyal  C.  Remelee,  of  Shoreham, 
after  reserving  to  himself  the  use  of  him  for  a  certain  period  that  fall ; 
and  he  also  used  him  in  part  for  two  succeeding  years.  He  was  thence- 
forth called  the  "  Atwood  ram."  He  got  the  "Elithorp  ram"  out  of  a 
ewe  bred  by  Mr.  Remelee,  and  sold  by  him  to  Mr.  Elithorp.  This  ewe 
was  got  by  Judge  Wright's  "  Black  Hawk,"  out  of  a  pure  Jarvis  ewe 
purchased  by  Mr.  Remelee  of  Mr.  Jarvis.  The  dam  and  grand-dam  of 
the  Elithorp  ram,  writes  Mr.  Elithorp,  "were  essentially  Jarvis  sheep 
in  their  appearance,  except  that  they  carried  darker  coats  on  the  outside, 
and  their  wool  was  thicker  set.  It  was  long,  fine,  splendid  wool.  They 
were  good  shaped  and  hardy  for  Jarvis  stock."  The  Elithorp  ram 
"  weighed  from  130  to  140  Ibs.,  in  good  condition:  was  formed  consider- 
ably like  his  sire  except  that  he  was  more  leggy ;  his  wool  was  long  and 
fine,  resembling  the  Jarvis  wool,  except  in  its  mode  of  opening,  which 
was  not  in  ringlets,  but  in  flakes  up  and  down."  It  "  covered  him  well, 
was  not  yolky  to  excess,  was  heavy  for  those  days,  but  its  precise  weight 
is  not  remembered."  He  was  also  an  excellent  stock  ram.  Judge 
Wright's  Black  Hawk  was  got  by  "  Fortune  "  out  of  a  pure  Jarvis  ewe 
purchased  by  Judge  W.  of  Mr.  Jarvis.  "Fortune"  was  bred  by  Tyler 
Stickney,  of  Shoreham,  and  got  by  "Consul"  out  of  a  pure  Paular 
(Rich)  ewe.  Consul  was  a  pure  Jarvis  ram  purchased  by  Mr.  Stickney 
of  Mr.  Jarvis.  Black  Hawk,  Fortune,  (for  a  long  time  owned  by  S.  W. 
Jewett,)  and  Consul,  were  all  highly  celebrated  animals  in  their  day, 
the  two  first  especially.  Fortune  was  sold  for  a  higher  price  than  any 
ram  of  his  day.  His  dam  was  an  exceedingly  choice  animal. 

Mr.  Elithorp  sold  the  Elithorp  ram,  then  a  lamb,  in  the  fall  of  1845, 
to  Erastus  Robinson,  of  Shoreham,  Vermont.  While  owned  by  Mr. 
Robinson,  he  got  the  "  Old  Robinson  ram  "  out  of  a  ewe  bred  by  Mr. 
Elithorp,  and  sold  by  him  with  29  others  to  Mr.  Robinson  in  the  spring 
of  1848.  This  ewe  was  got  by  the  Atwood  ram,  above  mentioned,  out  of 
a  pure  Paular  (Rich,)  ewe  bred  by  Mr.  Robinson  and  sold  by  him  to  Mr. 
Elithorp  in  the  fall  of  1843.  She  was  the  second  choice  of  Mr.  R.'s  flock. 
"  She  (the  grand  dam  of  the  Old  Robinson  ram,)  was  a  model  in  every 
particular  that  constitutes  a  good  sheep,  except  size,  which  was  below 
medium,  and  she  had  quite  short  legs."  Her  daughter  (the  dam  of  the 
Old  Robinson  ram)  was  a  counterpart  of  her,  except  that  she  was  a  good 
size  larger."  Both  "  were  heavy  shearers,  yielding  from  8  Ibs.  to  9  Ibs. 
each  of  white,  glossy  wool.  Thev  were  peculiar  for  heavy  caps  on  their 
foreheads,  short,  bull-dog  noses,  thick  ears,  and  very  short  necks.  They 
had  no  short  wool  on  their  noses  or  ears,  but  were  coated  on  these  parts 
with  white  glossy  hair."  The  Old  Robinson  ram  "  partook  of  the  strong 
characteristic  points  of  his  dam  "  in  carcass,  "  while  his  fleece  was  more 
of  the  Atwood  stamp.  His  legs,  like  those  of  his  dam  and  grand  dam,  were 
very  short."  Judge  Wright  describes  him  as  "  a  small  ram,  (weighing 
about  100  Ibs.,)  low  in  the  leg,  with  a  heavy  neck  and  a  large  and 
deep  chest,  covered  with  large  folds  or  corrugations  from  his  head  to  his 
tail.  His  wool  was  of  medium  length,  compact,  almost  too  fine,  and 
covered  him  to  the  hoofs.  He  partook  of  many  of  the  qualities  of  his 
18* 


418  APPENDIX    C. 

grand-sire,  the  Atwood  ram :  lie  had  a  large  amonnt  of  yolk ;  it  was 
creamy,  and  of  course  his  fleece  partook  of  that  color  in  the  inside.  On 
the  outside  it  was  quite  dark."  When  five  years  old,  says  David 
Cutting,  who  sheared  him  that  year,  he  yielded  11  Ibs.  11  oz.  of  wool. 
Mr.  Stickney,  who  purchased  him  of  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Robinson,  in 
about  1855,  and  who  was  familiar  with  him  all  his  life,  informed  Judge 
Wright  "  that  he  was  very  uniform  in  his  weight  of  fleece,  and  that  its 
average  weight  was  about  14  Ibs."  (unwashed.) 

This  ram,  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Robinson  and  Mr.  Stickney,  got  an 
immense  number  of  lambs,  which  were  very  strongly  marked  with  his 
own  characteristics.  They  were  generally  small,  short,  and  exceedingly 
compact,  with  fine,  yolky,  and  for  those  times,  heavy  fleeces.  They 
became  great  favorites,  and  sold  far  and  near  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Robinson  stock."  This  was  an  obvious  misnomer,  as  Mr.  Robinson, 
(a  valuable  man  and  intelligent  breeder,)  was  not  the  founder  of  either 
of  the  three  American  families  which  constituted  the  new  family,  or  the 
originator  of  the  cross  that  produced  it.  Messrs.  Robinson  and  Stickney 
commenced  their  original  flocks  with  prime  Rich  sheep,  purchased  from  a 
member  of  that  family.  In  1845,  Mr.  Robinson  bred  20,  and  in  1846,  23 
of  his  ewes  to  the  Atwood  ram,  owned  by  Mr.  Elithorp.  In  the  spring 
of  1848  he  bought  80  ewes  of  Mr.  Elithorp,  "a  majority  of  which  were 
Atwood  and  a  cross  of  Atwood  and  Rich  —  with  some  Jarvis  blood  in  a 
small  number  of  them."  These  are  believed  to  be  nearly  as  many  as 
the  other  ewes  then  owned  by  him ;  and  he  thenceforth  bred  the  flocks 
together,  using  first  the  Elithorp  ram,  and  the  Old  Robinson  ram  when 
he  became  old  enough,  with  them.  The  flock  at  Mr.  Robinson's  death 
contained  about  an  equal  amount  of  Paular  (Rich)  and  Infantado 
(Atwood)  blood,  and  it  was  very  celebrated  for  its  excellence.  The 
Stickney  branch  of  the  family  contained  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
Paular  blood.  The  old  Rich  flock  proper  was  crossed  somewhat  with 
the  Atwood  blood,  as  I  have  mentioned  while  describing  them. 

Mr.  Elithorp,  from  whom  I  have  derived  most  of  the  above  account 
of  his  own  and  Mr.  Robinson's  flocks,  is,  by  the  common  voice  of  his 
fellow-citizens,  a  judicious  breeder  and  excellent  judge  of  sheep.  And 
his  candor  and  integrity  are  wholly  above  suspicion. 


APPENDIX     C  —  (page  242.) 
ENGLISH  EXPEEIMENTS  IS  FEEDING  SHEEP, 

THE  following  accounts  of  further  experiments  in  feeding  sheep  are 
selected  from  Mr.  T.  E.  Pawlett's  already  cited  Essay  on  the  Manage- 
ment of  Sheep,  which  received  the  commendation  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England.  Mr.  Pawlett  says: 

"The  following  experiments  were  all  made  with  sheep  of  the 
Leicester  breed;  and  before  I  proceed  further  (that  I  may  not  be 
misunderstood,  as  some  of  my  statements  may  appear  surprising  to 
those  unaccustomed  to  make  experiments  and  weigh  sheep,)  I  shall 


APPENDIX   C.  419 

state  the  weight  of  Swedes,  &c.,  &c.,  sheep  and  lambs  will  daily 
consume ;  also  the  live  weight  they  will  generally  gain  in  four  weeks, 
according  to  their  age  and  season  of  the  year.  I  am  enabled  to  do  this 
without  much  fear  of  contradiction,  as  I  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
regularly  weighing  my  sheep  and  lambs  nearly  every  month  for  more 
than  twenty  years. 

An  ewe  lamb -hog  in  the  month  of  February  will  eat  of  cut 

Swedes  in  twenty  -  four  hours,  about 18  Ibs. 

A  wether  lamb  -  hog 20 

A  ram  Lamb  -  hog 22 

A  shearling  wether- 22 

A  feeding  or  breeding  ewe 24 

A  sucking  ewe 28 

A  ram  above  two  years  old 30 

—  no  other  food  but  cut  Swedes  being  given  to  them :  but  if  the  weather 
is  mild  or  warm  they  will  not  eat  so  much  as  I  have  stated  by  about 
one-fourth.  If  corn  or  oil-cake,  or  any  other  dry  food  is  used,  they  will 
consume  less  turnips  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  given.  I  have 
found  that  by  giving  sheep  one  pint  of  beans  each  per  day,  they  will 
not  require  so  many  Swedes  by  about  five  Ibs.  or  six  Ibs.  each. 

"Lambs  and  sheep  managed  and  fed  well,  if  in  small  lots,  will  gain 
in  live  weight  each  on  the  average  per  month : 

Young  lambs  in  the  month 


of  April 9  Ibs. 

May 16 

June 18 

July..... 15 

August 12 

September 12 


Lambs    in  the    month    of 

October 12  Ibs. 

November 8 

December 6 


January 5 

February 7 

March 10 


—  being  about  130  Ibs.,  in  twelve  months,  of  live  weight,  or  about  84  Ibs. 
of  mutton.  Some  lambs  will,  however,  greatly  exceed  hi  gain  the 
weights  that  I  have  stated. 

"  In  carrying  out  these  experiments,  I  was  obliged,  for  the  most  part, 
to  keep  them  in  small  yards,  a  system  which  I  am  generally  opposed 
to  (for  any  length  of  time;)  believing  that  sheep  and  all  other  animals 
ought,  as  far  as  regards  situation,  to  be  kept  in  a  state  as  near  approach- 
ing to  that  which  nature  assigned  for  them  as  possible,  provided  always 
that  their  lair  be  kept  clean  and  dry,  and  shelter  allowed  them  from 
the  cold  winds.  When  yards  must  be  used  for  sheep,  they  ought  always 
to  be  kept  tolerably  free  from  manure,  well  littered,  and  to  have  plenty 
of  fresh  air. 

"  Experiment  No.  1.— In  the  month  of  March,  1845, 1  selected  twelve 
couples  from  the  flock;  the  lambs  being  then  about  a  fortnight  old. 
These  were  divided  into  two  lots,  as  equally  as  well  could  be  with 
respect  to  the  condition  of  the  young  lambs,  and  put  into  two  separate 
small  yards.  Six  of  them  were  fed  on  clover-hay  chaff  entirely ;  the 
other  six  couples  had  140  Ibs.  of  cut  Swedes,  and  half  a  peck  of  beans 
daily ;  both  lots  having  water.  At  the  end  of  the  trial  of  about  a  month, 
the  lambs  of  each  were  carefully  compared ;  and  those  certainly  looked 
the  best  and  most  thriving  whose  dams  had  been  fed  only  on  clover-hay 
chaff. 


420  APPENDIX   C. 

The  six  ewes  fed  on  cut  Swedes,  ate  140  Ibs.,  or  1J  cwt.  every  day,     d. 

at  6d.  per  cwt.,  cost  per  week  each S^d. 

Also,  half  a  peck  of  beans  daily  for  the  six  ewes,  at  4s.  per 

bushel,  cost  each  per  week,  7d ;  making  the  cost  of  keeping 

each  ewe  per  week 15^ 

The  six  ewes  fed  on  clover-hay  chaff  only,  ate  daily  21  Ibs.,  or  3£ 

Ibs.  each,  at  6d.  per  stone,  or  £4  per  tun,  cost  per  head  per 

week 10i 

********* 

"Experiment  No.  2. —  Being  desirous  to  prove  further  the  value  of 
clover-hay  chaff  for  ewes  and  lambs,  I  again  selected  twelve  couples 
from  the  flock,  and  divided  them  equally  into  two  lots ;  they  were  also 
put  into  separate  small  yards.  On  the  3d  of  April,  1845,  the  lambs 
being  weighed  alive : 

Six  couples  were  fed  on  9  Ibs.  of  bran  daily,  which  cost  per  head    d. 
for  each  ewe  per  week,  5^d. ;  they  had  also  15  Ibs.  of  clover- 
hay  chaff  daily  at  6d.  per  stone,  cost  each  ewe  per  week  7^d., 
making  the  total  cost  of  keeping  each  couple  per  week 13 

The  other  six  couples  were  fed  on  clover-hay  chaff  only,  and  ate 

3£  Ibs.  each  ewe  per  day,  at  6d.  per  stone,  cost 10£ 

All  the  lambs  were  weighed  again  on  the  17th  of  April,  and 
the  result  was  as  follows  : 

Six  lambs,  whose  dams  were  fed  on  clover-hay  chaff  and  bran,  Ibs. 

gained  each  on  the  average  in  14  days 6 

Six  lambs,  whose  dams  were  fed  on  clover-hay  chaff  only,  gained 

in  the  same  time 4j 

A  difference  is  here  shown  of  1J  Ib.  of  live  weight  per  lamb  in  favor  of 
the  use  of  bran,  but  when  the  cost  of  it  is  taken  into  consideration  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  much  advantage  in  the  use  of  it. 

"Experiment  No.  3. —  Mangel  Wurzel  against  Swedes. —  March  llth, 
1846, 1  drew  12  couples  from  the  flock,  the  lambs  being  about  a  month 
old ;  these  were  divided  fairly  into  two  lots,  and  put  into  separate  yards ; 
six  of  them  were  fed  on  mangel  wurzel  cut  and  put  into  troughs,  with  a 
little  hay-chaff;  the  other  six  couples  were  fed  on  cut  Swedes,  with  a 
little  hay-chaff  also ;  they  were  all  weighed  alive  when  put  in  on  the 
llth  of  March,  and  again  on  the  2d  of  April,  when  I  found  the  following 
result : 

Lambs  gained  each        Ewes  lost  in 
on  the  average  in  the  same 

twenty-two  days.  time. 

Couples  fed  on  yellow  globe  mangel         Ibs.  Ibs. 

wurzel  and  chaff 8i  8 

Couples  fed  on  cut  Swedes  and  chaff          9J  3i 

"  This  experiment  does  not  speak  much  in  favor  of  mangel  wurzel 
for  couples  early  in  the  spring,  but  my  ewes  did  not  appear  to  like  them, 
and  would  not  take  to  them  well  only  as  they  were  fresh  cut.  I  found, 
upon  weighing  the  food  of  both  sorts,  that  the  ewes  ate  of  mangel  about 
14  Ibs.  each  per  day,  and  those  that  had  Swedes  22  Ibs.  each,  which  was 
a  great  difference  in  the  consumption  of  food ;  mangel  being  of  a  softer 
nature  than  Swedes,  they  ought  to  have  eaten  the  most  of  them,  but  as 
the  contrary  was  the  fact,  I  suppose  made  the  great  difference  stated  in 


APPENDIX   C.  421 

the  loss  in  weight  of  those  ewes  fed  on  the  mangel  over  those  that  had 
Swedes,  whilst  the  gain  in  weight  of  their  lambs  was  much  about  the 
same.  Hence,  I  conclude  that  if  ewes  are  fed  with  mangel  wurzel,  they 
should  have  them  thrown  whole  to  them,  either  on  grass  land  or  in  the 
yard,  with  plenty  of  good  clover-hay  chaff,  or  they  will  not  do  well ; 
but  this  more  particularly  applies  to  their  use  in  the  early  spring  months, 
when  they  are  in  a  very  succulent  state;  they,  however,  lose  much  of 
this  by  keeping  toward  the  summer,  when  their  value  becomes  apparent, 
as  I  shall  endeavor  to  show  hereafter.  * 

"  When  young  lambs  are  about  three  weeks  old  they  will  begin  to 
eat,  and  should  have  some  food  given,  them  apart  from  the  ewes,  or  run 
upon  some  green  food,  such  as  clover,  tares,  or  grass.  I  generally  make 
a  yard  or  fold  with  common  hurdles  (kept  very  airy  and  well  littered)  on 
my  land  intended  the  following  summer  for  turnips,  into  which  I  put  my 
ewes  when  their  lambs  begin  to  eat,  and  let  the  lambs  run  through  a 
hurdle  set  up  endwise  upon  a  piece  of  tares  or  vetches  sown  for  the  pur- 
pose the  preceding  autumn.  The  couples  are  kept  in  this  way  until  the 
pastures  intended  for  them  have  grown  sufficiently  high  to  carry  the 
number  required  until  the  lambs  are  weaned.  Although  some  extra 
expense  is  incurred  by  this  system  in  the  use  of  dry  food,  a  good  return 
is  obtained  by  the  outlay,  as  the  clovers  and  grass,  by"  not  being  stocked 
early,  carry  a  much  greater  number  of  couples  during  the  summer. 
The  usual  method  is  to  turn  the  ewes  and  lambs  upon  the  clovers  and 
grass  as  soon  as  the  turnip  season  is  over,  allowing  them  to  range  indis- 
criminately over  the  whole  field,  which  is  decidedly  a  bad  practice.  I 
would  strongly  recommend  that  part  of  the  field  should  be  fenced  off 
for  the  lajnbs  to  feed  upon  apart  from  their  dams,  which  may  be  done 
by  setting  upright  some  common  hurdles. 

•'  Method  of  Keeping  Couples  during  the  Early  Summer  Months. — In  the 
year  1845  I  had  a  field  of  land,  one  side  of  which  was  sown  with  white 
clover  and  trefoil,  the  other  side  with  tares,  and  a  piece  of  red  or  broad 
clover  was  sown  between  each.  The  white  clover  and  the  tares  were 
fed  off  with  ewes  and  lambs  in  the  usual  way,  the  ewes  on  either  part 
being  kept  asunder,  but  the  lambs  from  each  lot  fan  together  through 
the  hurdles  upon  the  red  clover,  which  was  a  good  pasture ;  they  had 
also  a  few  split  beans  every  day.  To  ascertain  the  value  of  tares  against 
clover  and  trefoil,  for  this  purpose,  I  made 

"  Experiment  No.  4.— From  each  of  the  above  lots  I  took  a  few  lambs 
and  weighed  them  alive  twice  during  the  month  of  May,  and  found  their 
increase  in  live  weight  per  month  to  be  as  follows : 
Average  gain,  in  weight,  of  seven  lambs,  whose  dams  were  fed    Ibs. 

on  clover  and  trefoil 20 

The  like,  whose  dams  were  fed  duing  the  same  period  on  tares. .  16£ 
—  being  a  difference  of  3i  Ibs.  each  lamb  in  favor  of  the  clover  and 
trefoil.  *  *  * 

"  In  the  spring  of  1846,  having  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  yellow 
globe  mangel  wurzel  left  on  hand,  I  determined  on  making  a  further 
trial  of  them  as  a  summer  food  for  sucking  ewes,  conceiving  that  they 
would,  when  bereft  of  much  of  their  succulent  qualities  through  keeping, 
feed  sheep  better  than  I  found  to  be  the  case,  as  related  in  experiment 
No.  3.  I,  therefore,  selected  from  the  flock  a  few  couples  in  the  middle 
of  May ;  one  part  of  them  were  folded  in  the  clover  field,  and  fed  with 


422  APPENDIX   C. 

plenty  of  cut  mangel  wur/el  and  a  little  hay -chaff;  their  lambs  ran 
through  the  hurdles  on  a  good  pasture  of  red  clover.  The  other  lot  of 
ewes  were  left  at  large  in  the  common  way  on  white  clover  and  trefoil ; 
their  lambs,  also,  had  a  good  piece  of  red  clover  to  feed  upon :  both  lots 
of  lambs  had  a  small  quantity  of  peas. 

"  Experiment  No.  6.— On  the  25th  of  May  the  lambs  from  each  of  the 
lots  above  described  were  weighed  alive,  and  again  on  the  22d  of  June, 
when  the  result  was  as  follows : 
Those  lambs  belonging  to  the  ewes  fed  on  mangel  wurzel,  gained   Ibs. 

each,  on  the  average,  in  28  days 21 

Lambs  from  ewes  fed  in  the  usual  way  on  clover  and  trefoil, 

gained  each,  in  the  same  time 18 

Difference  each  lamb  in  favor  of  mangel  wurzel 3 

"  This  statement,  as  well  as  others  preceding,  of  lambs  gaining  in 
live  weight  of  about  20  Ibs.  each  in  28  days,  may  appear  startling  to 
those  unaccustomed  to  weigh  them  alive,  but  this  is  no  uncommon 
weight  for  lambs  to  gain,  if  well  fed  and  attended  to  in  the  early  sum- 
mer months.  Those  ewes  fed  on  mangel  ate  about  22|  Ibs.  each  per  day, 
care  being  taken  that  their  lambs  had  none  of  it  on  those  days  that  the 
food  was  weighed,  and,  unlike  those  ewes  fed  on  it  in  March,  (see 
Experiment  Iso.  3,)  I  found  them  to  thrive  and  do  well  with  it.  It 
should,  however,  be  remembered  that  the  summer  of  1846  was  very 
favorable  for  the  use  of  mangel,  the  weather  being  very  dry  the  whole 
of  the  period  the  above  trial  was  carried  on,  and,  consequently,  more 
unfavorable  for  those  ewes  fed  on  the  clovers,  which,  toward  the  end  of 
the  time,  were  nearly  dried  up.  From  this  trial  it  appears  that  mangel 
wurzel  is  of  great  use  as  a  summer  food  for  sheep,  and  as  it  will  keep  a 
long  time,  if  properly  stored  the  preceding  autumn,  must  be  very  useful 
in  a  dry  season  for  any  kind  of  stock.  * 

"  Having  proved  by  many  experiments  the  advantage  of  putting 
young  lambs,  after  weaning,  upon  old  keeping — namely,  pastures  that 
have  been  stocked  from  the  commencement  of  the  spring  —  over 
eddishes  or  pastures  that  have  been  previously  mown  the  same  season, 
I  will  state  one  experiment  as  a  sample  of  the  rest.  In  the  year 
1834,  I  put  a  lot  of  lambs  on  some  old  sainfoin,  having  a  few  tares 
carried  to  them,  and  another  lot  of  lambs  were  put  on  young  sainfoin, 
or  an  eddish  which  had  grown  to  a  pasture ;  these,  also,  had  some 
tares.  Each  lot  was  weighed  at  the  commencement,  and  again  at 
the  end  of  the  trial: 

"Experiment  No.  7. — Gain  in  weight  of  a  lot  of  lambs  fed  on  Ibs. 
old    sainfoin,  from    July  10    to   August  10,  each    on   the 

average, 14J 

Lambs  fed  on  sainfoin  eddish,  gained  each  in  the  same  time,.  8^ 


Difference, 


"  Experiment  No.  8.  —  June  10,  1844,  ten  lambs  were  weaned,  and 
weighed  alive,  and  put  on  red  clover,  with  some  tares  and  beans 
given;  on  the  same  day,  ten  lambs  were  weighed  alive,  remaining 
with  their  dams  on  white  clover  and  trefoil,  but  allowed  to  run 
through  hurdles  upon  good  red  clover.  Each  lot  was  weighed  again 


APPENDIX   C.  423 

on  July  5th,  when  it  was  found  that  they  had  increased  in  weight  as 
follows,  each  lamb  on  the  average: 

Lambs  not  weaned  gained  each,  in  thirty -three  days, 17   Ibs. 

Lambs,  weaned,  gained  in  the  same  time, 16£    " 

"Experiment  No.  9.— June  4, 1845,  twelve  lambs  were  weaned  and 
put  upon  red  clover,  tares,  and  a  few  beans,  twelve  other  -lambs  lying 
with  their  dams  on  white  clover,  but  run  through  hurdles  upon  good 
red  clover.  Both  lots  were  weighed  when  put  to  trial,  and  acain  at 
the  end  of  a  month. 

Gain  in  weight  of  lambs  not  weaned, 21    Ibs. 

Gam  in  weight  of  lambs  that  were  weaned  during  the  same 

time 20£   " 

"  These  experiments  are  nearly  equal ;  but  I  must  remark,  that 
many  of  those  lambs  that  were  weaned  early  wintered  the  best." 
*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  * 

"Experiment  No.  10. — In  the  month  of  October,  I  selected  two 
lots  of  lambs,  and  weighed  them  alive.  To  one  lot  was  given,  in 
troughs,  cut  Swedes;  and  to  the  other  was  given,  in  troughs,  the 
common  white  turnip,  also  sliced.  At  the  expiration  of  a  month  they 
were  weighed  again,  and  gained  each,  on  the  average,  as  follows : 

The  lambs  fed  on  common  white  turnips  cut  gained  each, 10  Ibs. 

Those  fed  on  cut  Swedes,  gained  in  the  same  time  each, 4$  " 

In  favor  of  the  white  turnip, 5| 

To  show  that  the  white  turnip  loses  much  of  its  value  as  the  winter 
approaches,  agreeably  to  what  I  have  stated,  I  will  just  show  the 
result  of  another  experiment. 

"  Experiment  No.  11. — On  the  8th  of  November  two  lots  of  lambs 
were  weighed  alive.  One  lot  was  fed  on  cut  Swedes  only,  and  the 
other  lot  had  only  cut  white  turnips.  They  were  weighed  again 
December  6,  and  gained  each  as  follows,  on  the  average: 

Lambs  fed  on  white  turnips  gained  each,  in  a  month 

The  lambs  fed  on  Swedes  gained,  in  same  time, 5 

"The  same  lambs  were  continued  to  be  fed  as  before  for  three 
weeks  longer,  when  I  found,  upon  weighing  them  again,  that  the  white 
turnips  quite  gave  place  to  the  Swedes. 

"  Experiment  No.  12,  (dry  food,  with  Swedes,  against  Swedes  only.— 
In  1833  I  weighed  two  lots  of  lambs  on  the  19th  of  November.  To 
one  was  given  cut  Swedes,  with  clover-hay  chaff  and  maltcoom  mixed ; 
the  other  lot  had  only  cut  Swedes.  They  were  all  weighed  again  on 
the  16th  of  January,  and  gained  in  weight  as  follows : 

Lot  of  lambs  Jed  on  cut  Swedes,  with  clover-chaff  and  maltcoom,    Ibs. 

gained  each,  in  two  months, 14£ 

Lot  of  lambs  fed  on  Swedes  only,  gained  each,  in  the  same  time,      8 

In  favor  of  dry  food, 6$ 


424  APPENDIX   C. 

"Experiment  No.  13.—  Bein<*   again  desirous  of  testing   the  use  of 
dry  food  for  lambs  at  turnips,  I  tobk  sixteen  lambs  from  my  flock  on 
February  the  18th,  1846,  and  weighed  them  ;  eight  of  them  were  penned 
and  fed  with  cut  Swedes  only.    The  other  eight  lambs  had  cut  Swedes, 
with  2  Ibs.  of  clover-hay  chatf  and  2  Ibs.  of  bran  mixed  together  for  the 
eight  per  day,  or  half-a-pound  each.    They  were  weighed  again  on  the 
17th  of  March,  when  the  result  was  as  follows  : 
Gain  in  weight  of  lambs,  on  the  average,  fed  on  Swedes,  bran,    Ibs. 
and  clover-  chaff,  in  a  month,  ...........................      7J 

Gain  in  weight  of  lambs  fed  only  on  Swedes,  during  same  time,      3i 


Difference  in  favor  of  dry  food 


The  cost  of  dry  food  was 

2  Ibs.  of  bran  per  day  amongst  eight  lambs  for  .28  days,  or  4  s.    d. 
stone  at  5s.  per  cwt.  cost,  ................................    2    6 

2  Ibs.  of  clover  per  day  for  eight  lambs,  during  28  days,  gives  4 

stone  at  4s.  per  cwt  ......................................    2    0 

8)4    6 

Cost  of  dry  food  for  each  lamb,  per  month,  ...........          6f 

********* 

"Experiment  No.  14.—  Having  used  linseed  for  some  years  with 
success  in  the  feeding  of  cattle,  I  determined  to  try  whether  it  would 
answer  equally  as  well  for  sheep.  I  therefore  gave  a  lot  of  eight  lambs, 
feeding  on  cabbages  with  white  turnips,  half  a  pint  of  linseed  each  per 
day.  To  another  lot  of  eight  lambs,  also  upon  cabbages  with  white 
turnips,  clover  -  chaff  was  given,  as  much  as  they  would  eat.  They 
were  all  weighed  on  the  27th  of  October,  and  again  at  the  end  of 
the  trial. 

Lambs  fed  on  cabbage  and  linseed  gained  each  per  month,  ...  16  Ibs. 
Lambs  fed  on  cabbage  and  clover-hay  chaff  gained  each,  in 

same  time,  .............................................  16    " 

"Experiment  No.  15.  —  Having  determined  some  years  ago  to  have 
nothing  more  to  do  with  feeding  sheep  in  yards,  I  was,  however,  last 
season  induced,  through  the  favorable  representations  of  some  persons, 
to  give  it  a  further  trial.    I  took  some  of  my  best  lambs,  that  I  intended 
to  show  for  premiums,  and  put  them  into  a  warm,  well-sheltered  yard, 
with  a  lofty  hovel  to  feed  under,  being  kept  well  littered  with  dry,  fresh 
straw  ;  and  their  quarters  appeared  so  comfortable,  that  I  thought  they 
must  go  on  well.    They  were  fed  with  Swedes  and  corn  in  the  usual 
way.     I  weighed  them  alive  when  put  into  the  yard,  December  4th, 
1845,  against  some  other  lambs  fed  on  the  same  food,  but  in  the  field, 
kept  in  the  ordinary  way.    Both  lots  were  weighed  again  on  February 
3d,  1846. 

Those  fed  in  the  turnip-field  gained  each,  on  the  average,  in      Ibs. 
eight  weeks,  ............................................         13 

Those  lambs  fed  in  the  yard  gained  each,  on  the  average,  in  the 

time,  ..............................................          3 


Ag.iinst  the  yard  -  feeding  system, 10 


APPENDIX    D.  425 

"These  lambs  did  not  appear  to  like  the  confinement  of  being  in 
a  yard,  and  would  take  every  opportunity  of  getting  out  if  they  could. 
This  system  is  not  natural  for  sheep,  and  cannot  answer  for  long-wools, 
or  be  depended  on. 

"Experiment  No.  16.—  Ibs. 

On  grass  land,  lambs  fed  with  Swedes  and  chaff  gained  each, 

on  the  average,  from  December  10  to  March  5, 18 

On  turnip  land,  lambs  fed  in  the  same  way  gained  each,  in  the 

same  time, 17 

"Experiment  No.  17. — 

On  grass  land,  lot  of  lambs  fed  with  cut  Swedes  and  chaff,  in 
Dec.,  Jan.,  and  Feb.,  1885,  gained  each,  on  the  average,  in 
three  months, 21 

On  turnip  land,  lot  of  lambs,  fed  in  the  same  manner,  gamed 

each,  in  the  same  tune, 19 

Being  only  a  gain  of  2  Ibs.  each  during  three  months. 
"  Experiment  No.  18. — 
On  grass  land,  lambs  fed  on  carrots,  Swedes,  and  chaff,  gained 

each,  on  the  average,  from  Jan.  27,  1836,  to  March  2, 7 

On  turnip  land,  lambs  fed  in  the  same  manner  gained  each,  in 

the  same  time, 2$ 

"The  difference  here  is  greatly  in  favor  of  feeding  on  grass  land, 
but  not  for  carrots,  (see  other  experiments.) 

"  Experiment  No.  19. — 
On  grass  land,  lambs  fed  on  Swedes,  carrots,  and  chaff  gained 

each,  on  the  average,  from  Nov.  16, 1837,  to  Feb.  10, 16 

On  turnip  land,  lot  of  lambs,  fed  in  the  same  manner,  gamed 

each,  in  the  same  time, 18£ 

"  This  experiment  differs  much  from  the  last ;  but  it  is  the  result  of 
three  or  four  experiments  that  must  be  looked  to,  for  I  well  know 
that  no  single  experiment  can  be  depended  on. 


APPENDIX  D— (page  248.) 
SHEEP  AND  PBODUOT  OP  WOOL  IN  UITETED  STATES. 

THE  following  statistics  are  from  the  United  States  Census  of  1860. 
Under  the  extraordinary  demand  for  wool  which  has  existed  for  the  last 
two  years,  the  number  of  sheep  has  probably  increased  far  more  since 
1860  than  it  did  for  the  ten  preceding  years. 


426 


APPENDIX   D. 


STATES. 

W( 

)OL. 

SHEEP. 

1850. 

1800. 

1860. 

Alabama,  

founds. 
657,118 

Pounds. 
681,404 

Number. 
12,404 

Arkansas,  .            ................. 

182,595 

410,285 

6,481 

California,            .        ..             

5,520 

2,681,922 

23,414 

Connecticut,           .                     ... 

497,454 

335,986 

2700 

67,768 

60201 

5fi9 

Florida 

23,247 

58594 

1  675 

Georgia, 

990,019 

946  2"9 

Illinois,  

2,150,113 

2,477.563 

33,822 

Indiana,  

2,610,287 

2,466,264 

32  (112 

373,898 

653  036 

22267 

22.593 

1  145 

2,297,433 

2  325  T>4 

67  101 

Louisiana 

109  897 

296187 

2l'&43 

Maine 

1,364  034 

Maryland,  

477,438 

491  511 

1  135 

Massachusetts,                      ...........  .      ......  . 

585,136 

377  267 

8616 

Michigan,                 

2,043,283 

4  062  858 

47  916 

Minnesota,                   .  .     ....      

85 

22740 

2473 

Mississippi, 

559,619 

]|M3 

Missouri                                 .            .               

1,627,164 

New  Hampshire, 

1  108  476 

New  Jersey,  ,  

375,396 

349,250 

12093 

New  York,    

10,071,301 

9  454  473 

3065 

North  Carolina,               ..  .......  

970,738 

883473 

77  296 

Ohio                ..  ....  ...                 

10  196  371 

'  29  686 

4,481,570 

4  752  523 

53  1J25 

Rhode  Island,                       

129,692 

90699 

5455 

South  Carolina,                  .                

487  233 

427  102 

1  364  378 

Texas 

131  917 

Vermont,  

3,400,717 

2,975,544 

18,015 

Virginia,  

2,860,765 
253,963 

2,509,443 
1,011,915 

112,591 
11,885 

Total  States,  

52,474,311 

59,932,328 

TERRITORIES. 
Columbia  District  of 

625 

Dakota, 

Nebraska,                                 

3312 

62 

New  Mexico,                                                          

32901 

142110 

Utah,..                                                              

9222 

4*325 

Washington, 

Total  Territories,  

42,648 

679,015 

Aggregate,  

52,516,959 

60,511,343 

-wopsr 

I  give  these  figures  for  what  they  are  worth.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
number  of  sheep  reported  hi  1860  bears  no  correspondence  whatever 
with  the  product  of  wool  the  same  year.  It  assuredly  required  over 
twelve  millions  of  sheep,  taken  as  they  average,  to  produce  sixty 
million  pounds  of  wool ;  and  then  the  lambs  of  the  year,  not  sheared, 
would  at  least  equal  six  millions  more.  I  have  no  doubt  there  were 
twenty  millions  of  sheep  in  the  United  States  in  1860,  and  probably  the 
present  number  equals  twenty-five  millions. 


APPENDIX   E.  427 


APPENDIX    E  —  (Page  250.) 

STAETING-    A    SHEEP    ESTABLISHMENT    IN    THE   NEW 
WESTERN   STATES. 

THE  following  letter  is  from  an  intelligent  gentleman  residing  in 
Essex  County,  New  York,  whom  I  knew  a  few  years  since  as  a  highly 
respectable  member  of  the  New  York  Legislature : 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS,  May  1,  1863. 

HON.  H.  S.  RANDALL— Dear  Sir:  Yours  dated  April  20th  came  duly 
to  hand.  I  should  have  replied  at  once,  but  have  not  had  a  spare 
moment  for  the  last  four  weeks,  as  my  sheep  have  required  my  undivided 
attention.  I  am  here  on  business  for  a  day,  and  will  take  time  to  give 
you  a  few  facts  as  far  as  my  experience  is  concerned. 

About  the  20th  of  last  July  I  started  from  Calhoun  County,  Michigan, 
with  two  droves  of  sheep,  about  1,700  in  each  drove.  My  destination 
was  Southern  Minnesota.  In  consequence  of  the  Indian  outbreak  in 
that  section  of  country,  I  changed  my  plan  and  stopped  in  Northern 
Iowa,  about  twenty  miles  west  of  McGregor,  on  the  old  military  road 
to  Forts  Crawford  and  Atkinson.  My  sheep  stood  driving  remarkably 
well,  and  arrived  at  that  point  about  the  10th  of  September.  I  found 
good  feed,  and  by  the  time  winter  set  in  my  sheep  were  in  fine  order. 
I  sold  about  300  in  the  autumn,  thinking  I  would  winter  the  remainder. 
I  then  set  about  preparing  whiter  quarters  for  3,000  sheep.  I  did  not 
erect  my  sheds  at  one  place,  (on  account  of  the  inconvenience  of  hauling 
the  feed  I  had  purchased  to  one  place,)  but  about  two  miles  apart,  where 
water  was  convenient.  I  succeeded  in  getting  a  grove,  at  each  place, 
and  built  my  sheds  fronting  the  grove  and  parallel  with  each  other, 
about  500  feet  long.  I  built  them  of  poles  and  posts  from  the  groves, 
and  covered  them  with  straw.  The  front  posts  were  about  six  feet 
above  ground  and  the  back  ones  about  four.  I  employed  Irishmen 
that  were  in  the  habit  of  using  the  spade  and  covered  the  back  side 
with  dirt,  and  then  covered  this  smoothly  with  sod,  which  made  them 
very  warm  —  being  left  open  in  front,  this  was  important.  I  then  cut 
the  sheds  up  with  board  fences  about  22  feet  apart,  commencing  under 
the  shed  and  running  out  about  50  feet  in  front,  making  yard  and  shelter 
for  about  50  sheep.  I  forgot  to  mention  the  width  of  the  sheds,  which  was 
13  feet.  I  then  sorted  my  sheep,  putting  heavy  wethers  by  themselves, 
heavy  ewes  by  themselves,  &c. ;  in  short,  I  went  through  the  flock 
grading  them  according  to  strength  and  sex.  I  started  with  prepared 
winter  quarters  for  3,000,  but  continued  to  sell  some  through  the  early 
part  of  winter.  By  the  1st  of  January  I  had  reduced  my  flock  to  2,200. 
After  that  I  declined  selling  more. 

I  will  now  give  you  a  brief  account  of  my  feeding,  its  quantity, 
quality,  &c.  I  procured  what  hay  I  conveniently  could,  about  half  of 
which  was  nice  timothy.  I  expected  to  buy  from  time  to  time  during 
the  winter,  which  I  have  been  able  to  do  at  fair  rates,  say  from  $3  to 
$4  per  ton.  I  would  quite  as  soon  have  good  upland  prairie  hay  as 
timothy,  provided  it  is  cut  early.  The  sheep  will  eat  it  better.  I  also 
bought  what  corn  I  could  in  the  field,  paying  from  $4  to  $7  per  acre. 


428  APPENDIX   F. 

This  I  cut  while  the  fodder  was  green,  before  frost,  shocking  it  in  the 
field  and  drawing  in  after  the  ground  froze.  This  I  found  excellent 
feed.  I  fed  it  once  a  day,  usually  at  noon.  After  that  was  used  up  I 
fed  corn  hi  the  ear  to  all  except  my  yearling  lambs.  The  latter  I  fed  a 
mixture  of  shelled  corn,  oats  and  shorts  from  the  mill,  mixing  it  as 
follows : — J  corn,  J  oats,  |  shorts.  I  gave  a  pen  of  50  lambs  one-half 
bushel  once  a  day  (at  11  o'clock.)  This,  with  what  hay  they  could  eat, 
made  them  prosper  finely.  I  fed  hay  to  all  my  sheep  twice  a  day ;  but 
the  lambs  generally  got  it  three  times. 

My  sheep  have  been  remarkably  healthy.  Of  course  one  dies 
occasionally,  but  I  have  got  them  Well  through  the  winter.  I  have  just 
finished  tagging.  On  coming  to  handle  them,  we  find  them  very  heavy. 
A  large  number  are  good  mutton.  Since  putting  up  my  sheep  last  fall, 
I  have  lost  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  630  lambs  that  I  went  into  winter 
with.  Only  one  has  died.  I  think  the  feed  I  have  used  for  lambs  can't 
be  bettered.  My  sheep  are  about  two-thirds  ewes.  I  can't  give  any 
definite  idea  of  how  many  lambs  I  shall  have,  as  I  did  not  put  my  bucks 
in  with  my  ewes  until  the  first  of  December.  I  was  unfortunate  enough 
in  the  autumn  to  have  a  native  buck  get  in  with  my  flock  once  in  a 
while,  and  the  result  has  been  that  I  have  had  about  ninety  lambs 
during  the  winter,  scattered  along.  I  had  from  the  ninety  ewes  eighty- 
four  good  healthy  lambs.  I  should,  however,  have  had  but  very  few  of 
the  lambs  living,  coming  as  they  did,  had  it  not  been  for  the  care  of  my 
yard-master.  A  lamb  will  chill  in  one  hour  in  cold  weather  if  not 
taken  to  the  fire  to  dry,  which  is  found  necessary  in  most  cases. 

I  am  satisfied  that  Iowa  and  Southern  Minnesota  are  especially 
adapted  to  wool  growing.  The  country  where  I  am  keeping  my  sheep 
is  somewhat  uneven  and  rolling,  and  a  good  farming  country.  The 
country  seems  prosperous.  Improved  farms  are  selling  from  $15  to  $20 
per  acre,  and  unimproved  lands  from  $3  to  $10  per  acre. 

I  am  sorry  that  I  am  obliged  to  give  you  such  a  hurried  statement 
of  my  experience  with  sheep  hi  the  West.  Any  farther  inquiries  you 
may  be  pleased  to  make,  I  shall  be  happy  to  answer. 

Yours  truly,  R.  A.  LOVELASTD. 


APPENDIX  F  —  (page  257.) 
CLIMATE  OF  TEXAS. 

THE  following  account  of  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  climate  of 
Texas,  of  the  seasons  and  crops  and  their  vicissitudes,  I  extract  from 
articles  on  the  Climatology  of  that  State,  contributed  to  the  Texas 
Almanacs  of  1860  and  1861,  by  Professor  Caleb  G.  Forshey,  Superinten- 
dent of  the  Military  Institute,  in  Fayette  County : 


APPENDIX    F.  429 

TEXAS    NOETHEBS. 

Number  and  Duration. — 1.  During  seven  or  eight  months  of  every 
year,  Texas  is  liable  to  a  class  of  storms,  or  winds,  styled  "  northers, 
from  the  direction  from  which  they  come. 

2.  In  the  year  1857,  there  were  twenty-six  northers  experienced  &t 
the  Texas  Military  Institute,  in  Fayette  county.    Of  these  some  two  or 
three  were  gentle  or  baffled  northers.    They  occupied  fifty-seven  days, 
having  an  average  of  two  and  one-fifth  days  in  length.    The  latest  in 
spring,  was  May  16,  and  earliest  in  autumn,  was  Nov.  7. 

3.  In  the  year  1858,  there  were  thirty-seven  northers,  about  thirty- 
three  of  which  might  be  classed  as  well  marked,  the  others  being  either 
gentle  or  baffled  northers.     These  occupied  seventy-eight  days.    The 
latest  in  spring,  was  May  9,  and  the  earliest  in  autumn,  was  Oct.  7. 

4.  In  the  first  half  of  1859,  there  have  been  twenty-four  northers,  of 
which  four  may  be  described  as  gentle  or  baffled  northers.    They  have 
occupied  forty-seven  days  in  their  transit,  and  the  latest  was  May  24. 

5.  It  is  proper  to  remark  that  nearly  all  the  northers  of  May  and 
October  are  mild,  and  rarely  do  much  damage,  or  produce  so  low  a 
temperature  as  to  be  severely  felt.    All  the  other  months,  November  to 
April  inclusive,  are  liable  to  northers  of  considerable  severity. 

6.  It  appears  then,  that  in  thirty  months  last  past,  of  which  eighteen 
months  are  liable  to  distinct  northers,  we  have  experienced  eighty 
northers,  not  including  the  feeble  ones  of  May  and  October.    The  same 
period  has  seventy-seven  weeks,  very  nearly  affirming  the  hypothesis  of 
weekly  returns  of  the  norther.    An  inspection  of  the  table  shows  a  large 
number  of  punctual  weekly  recurrences  of  this  meteor. 

7.  At  this  place  of  observation  their  duration  varies  from  one  to  four 
days. 

Area  and  Boundaries  of  NortTier.  —  8.  The  region  over  which  this 
peculiar  storm  has  its  sweep,  is  not  very  great,  though  its  precise  limits 
can  not  be  defined.  By  diligent  inquiry  from  persons  of  great  experi- 
ence, we  submit  the  following  limits: 

9.  On  the  north,  by  the  valley  of  Red  river,  in  the  Indian  Territory; 
on  the  east,  by  the  second  tier  of  counties  from  the  east  boundary  of 
Texas,  near  meridian  95°,  south  to  the  Trinity  and  thence  south-east  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Sabine.  On  the  south  they  are  felt  across  the  Gulf,  to 
the  coast  of  South-Mexico  and  Yucatan.  On  the  west  they  are  bounded 
by  the  Sierra  Madre,  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  Pecos,  and  thence  by  about 
the  101st  meridian  to  the  sources  of  Red  river. 

10.  Within  this  area,  there  are  various  degrees  of  violence,  having 
their  axis  of  intensity  between  meridians  97  and  98,  and  increasing  in 
force  and  duration,  the  further  south.  At  Red  river,  on  this  line,  they 
are  usually  limited  to  a  day  or  two ;  whereas  at  Corpus  Christ!  and 
Matamoras,  one  norther  often  continues  till  the  next  supersedes  it;  and 
at  Vera  Cruz,  a  twenty-days  norther  is  not  remarkable. 

West  of  Fort  Belknap,  to  the  Pecos,  the  northers  grow  feebler  and 
rarer.  North  of  Red  river,  on  the  route  from  Fort  Washita  to  Fort 
Smith,  they  are  rarely  felt. 

On  the  east  margin  they  are  much  modified  by  the  forests  of  the 
timbered  region.  At  all  points,  an  open  prairie  increases  their  vigor. 


430  APPENDIX   F. 

Forces  and  other  Phenomena.  — 11.  The  norther  usually  commences 
with  a  violence  nearly  equal  to  its  greatest  force,  if  its  initial  point  be 
near  the  observer.  If  it  has  traveled  some  distance,  it  will  be  warmed 
up,  and  moderated  in  its  violence,  at  first  attack.  Its  greatest  force 
might  be  marked  five,  in  a  scale  between  a  gentle  breeze,  at  one,  and  a 
hurricane,  at  ten.  The  writer  has  measured  one  traveling  at  about 
thirty-two  miles  per  hour— but  many  others  at  twelve  to  eighteen  miles. 
The  mean  progress  seems  to  be  about  fifteen  miles  per  hour. 

12.  Just  before  a  norther,  two  to  six  hours,  the  south  wind  lulls,  and 
the  still  air  becomes  very  oppressive.  A  low  black  cloud  rolls  up  from 
the  north,  and  when  it  comes  near  the  zenith,  the  wind  strikes  with 
vigor.  Sometimes  we  have  a  sudden  dash  of  rain;  but  generally 
northers  are  intensely  dry,  and  soon  drink  up  all  the  moisture  of  the 
surface  earth,  and  of  the  objects  upon  it,  capable  of  yielding  their 
humidity. 

Great  thirst  of  man,  and  all  other  animals,  is  experienced ;  an  itching 
sensation  over  the  skin ;  a  highly  electric  condition  of  the  skin  of  horses 
and  cats ;  a  wilting  and  withering  of  vegetation,  even  when  the  tempe- 
rature would  not  account  for  it ;  a  reduction  of  temperature,  usually  very 
sudden,  sometimes,  though  rarely,  a  degree  per  minute,  for  twenty 
minutes ;  and  in  winter  commonly  a  reduction  from  70°  or  75°,  to  30° 
or  40°. 

This  fall  of  temperature  is  the  more  severely  felt  from  the  drying 
power  of  the  north  wind  —  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  skin 
increasing  the  severity  of  the  temperature. 

13.  Nervous,  rheumatic,  and  gouty  persons  suffer  more  severely  than 
others.  To  invalids  suffering  from  other  maladies,  it  has  not  been  found 
unhealthy ;  and  for  persons  of  weak  lungs,  if  not  too  much  exposed  to 
its  direct  fury,  it  is  found,  to  be  more  salubrious  than  the  humid  south 
winds.  Consumptions  do  not  originate  over  the  area  of  the  noi'ther. 
On  the  contrary,  many  persons  afflicted  with  weak  or  diseased  lungs, 
resort  to  this  region,  and  find  relief.  The  western  and  northern  portions 
of  this  area  are  most  salubrious,  and  best  adapted  to  weak  lungs. 
*  *  *  *  *  ***  *  * 

Phenomena  not  readily  explicable. — When  a  dry  norther  commences, 
the  whole  air,  in  an  hour  or  two,  curdles,  and  becomes  smoky,  or  rather 
whitish,  and  has  a  distinct  smell.  Its  odor  sometimes  resembles  that 
which  is  developed  by  a  flash  of  lightning,  though,  at  other  times,  it 
reminds  one  of  fine  straw  smoke,  in  its  odor. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  this  turbidness  and  odor,  are  d^e  to  the 
ozone  set  free,  by  the  high  electrical  excitation,  in  a  dry  norther.  Ex- 
periments instituted  to  test  the  matter,  last  April,  were  too  late  in  the 


Sirocco.  —  When  the  norther  has  a  little  westing,  it  is  observed  to 
be  more  intensely  dry,  and  to  be  destructive  to  vegetation,  even  before 
the  frost  which  usually  follows  it.  Corn,  beans,  young  foliage,  and  the 
grass  and  weeds  of  the  prairie,  bow  and  wither  before  it.*  A  few  of 
these  I  have  called  Siroccos.  They  occur  as  well  in  summer  as  in  spring 
or  autumn,  and  differ,  in  several  respects,  from  the  true  norther. 

*  The  citizens  of  Galveston,  and  the  southern  portions  of  Texas,  will  remember 
the  violent  north-wester  in  1856,  which  preceded  and  attended  the  storm  which 
wrecked  the  Nautilus.  It  was,  in  my  judgment,  a  true  Sirocco.  In  like  manner  the 
north-west  wind,  that  withered  the  corn-fields  in  Lamar,  Fannin,  and  Grayson,  and 
the  counties  south  of  these,  on  the  17th  day  of  August,  1858,  deserves  a  like  name. 


APPENDIX   P. 


431 


SEASONS   AND   CROPS:   THEIR   VICISSITUDES. 


1857. 

1858. 

1859. 

1860. 

January.  —  No  rain. 

January.  —  No   se- 
vere cold  ;  abundant 

January  —  Some  se- 
vere weather.    Rain 

January.  —  Moder- 
ately cold.    Rain,  1.5 

•. 

rain. 

2>£  inches. 

nch. 

February  6.—  Prai- 

February 3.  —  Vio- 

February  15—  Grass 

February  1,  2,  3,  24, 

ries  getting  green.— 

ent  storm.    1st.  Bra- 

covers   woods    anc 

25,  26.—  Frost.    17th. 

10th.  Corn,  peas,  let- 

zos overflows.    22d. 

prairies  ;  corn-plant- 

iain  copious,   East- 

tuce,    and    radishes 

Peaches    killed     by 

ing   begins.     24th.- 

Texas.  Whole  rain  of 

coming  up.     Rain  1 

rost,   25   deg.    27th. 

Woods  gray.    Rain  1 

month,  5  inches. 

inch. 

Growing  weather. 

inch. 

March  7.  —  Corn  six 

March  2.—  Freeze, 

March  6.  —Woods 

March  5.—  Prairies 

inches  high;  prairies 
one  month  forward. 

24  deg.    20th.  Woods 
greenish  ;    grasshop- 

lalf-green  ;  rye  head- 
ing; dogwoods  bloom; 

green;  corn-planting  ; 
woods  gray.     Frost, 

12th.  Terrible  frost; 
kills    every    thing  — 

>ers  hatching,  west. 
27th.  Make  havoc  and 

corn  coming  up  gen- 
erally.    20th.    Good 

28-9  cuts  off  cotton 
and  some  corn,  and 

frui  t  and  crops.  Rain 

migrate.    17th.  Corn 

stand  ;    post    oaks 

gardens.    14th.  Rad- 

1  inch. 

planted.    25th.  Squir- 

naked,   blackjacks 

shes  and   lettuce.— 

rels  migrate  on  Trin- 

green.      23d.    Wild 

Whole   rain,    1.5  in. 

ty. 

geese  leave.and  doves 
coo.    Rain—  7.87. 

28th.  Geese  migrate  ; 
good     prospects     of 

crop. 

April  [5.—  All  green 
again  ;  new  crops  up 

April  1  —  Grasshop- 
>ers  bad    in  Guada- 

April  1.—  Radishes 
and    lettuce.     23d.— 

April   1.  —  Whip- 
loor  -  wills.       6th.  — 

and    vigorous.     6th. 
Norther,     hail,     and 
freeze;  all  crops,  fruit, 

oupe;  May  20,  coun- 
ry  eaten  up  by  them 
west  of  97°  10'. 

Frost  kills  corn  and 
cotton  in  low  grounds 
Rain,  0.69  in. 

iVoods  quite   green. 
4th.  Ground   crack- 
ng    from    drouth.  — 

and  mast,  killed.   11- 

21st.  Dewberries  ripe. 

12th.  Sleet,  snow,  and 

9th-27th,  good  rains; 

freeze,   again.     24th. 

otal,  3.8  inches. 

Frost   in    valleys.  - 

Rain,  %  inch. 

May  30.—  Rain  two 
inches  —  not  12  inches 
in  a  year. 

May  1  to  9.—  Rain 
o%    inches  ;     wheat, 
oats,  rye  and  millet 

May  7.—  Fair  rains 
start  the   re-planted 
crops  ;  not  one  grass- 
lopper  in   the  land. 

May  1.  —  Crops  very 
iromising  ;  no  grass- 
loppers.   15th.  Crops 
wilt  for  want  of  rain. 

die  of  rust.    10-15th. 
livers  overflow.  25- 
30th.  Corn  tasseling  ; 

22d.  Crops  look  well; 
wheat  harvest  begins. 
28th.  Wheat  harvest 

25th.  Corn  tasseling  ; 
very  dry.    21st.  Rye 
ripe.    26th.  Oats  cut. 

leans,  peas  and  pota- 
oes  in  use  from  10th. 

closes;  early  corn  tas- 
sels.   Total  rain,  6.76 

30th.  Wheat  ripe  and 
cutting.  Rain,  0.35  in. 

inches. 

June   11.  —  Wheat 

June.  —  Showery 

June  3.  —  Roasting 

June.  —  No  rain  this 

reaped  ;    good  crop  ; 

weather,  llth.  Great 

ears.  llth.  Rain  saves 

month.      Corn     per- 

man  and  beast  suffer- 

rain.   Rain  in  June, 

corn  ;  total,  0.50  in. 

shes,     gardens    die, 

ing  for  water.    20th. 

6K  inches.  6th.  Roast- 

creeks    and    springs 

Grass  all  dead. 

ng  ears. 

dry  up.  Mucli  corn  cut 

up  west  of  Colorado. 

layette    and    Wash- 

ngton  make    half- 

crops   corn;    wheat, 

oats,  rye,  and  barley 
good.     Greatest 

[routh  over    United 

States   ever   remem- 

>ered. 

July.  —  No    rain  ! 
August,  no  rain  1 

July.  —  Rain  1  inch. 
GSood  corn  crops  over 
most  of  the  State.— 

July.  —  Very  dry.  — 
Total  rain,  0.90.  30th. 
Cattle  suffer  for  water 

July  1.—  Cattle  suf- 
er  for  water  ;  ponds 
and  creeks  all  dry  ; 

lust  kills  all   small 

ontinues    to    July 

rain. 

8th,  when  this  report 
closes. 

432 


APPENDIX    F. 


1857. 

1858. 

1859. 

1860. 

August    and    Sep- 
tember.— Dry  ;  only  1 
inch  rain. 

August—  Rain,  0.50; 
west  of  97°  no  rain  ; 
all  summer  corn  and 

cotton  dead.   August 

gave     showers      in 
Guadaloupe,  etc. 

| 

September  7.—  Oaks 

drying  from  drouth, 
except  live  oak.  First 
good  rain  this  year,  2 

Sept,—  Good  rains  ; 
5.85  inches. 

inches. 

October.—  Rain,  3X 

October.  —  Good 

October.  —  Good 

inches.    The  prairies 

rains,  3.7  inches. 

rains,  6.60  inches. 

green. 

November.—  Grass- 

November. —  Some 

November.  —  Warm 

hoppers,  west.    Rea- 
sonable rains  ;   good 

rain—  2>£  inches. 

and  pleasant  mouth  ; 
no  rain. 

fall  gardens.   26-27th. 

Hard    storms    very 

extensive;  Nebraska 

wrecked   at   Galvee- 

ton.  Rain,  2K  inches. 

December  —  Lowest 

December.—  Rains 

December  1  to  8.  — 

temperature,  30°. 

copious,  4.4  inches.— 

Terrible  winter 

No  severe  cold. 

weather;  snow,  sleet 

rain  and  freeze  ;  kills 

cattle,    horses    a  n  c 

sheep   in  vast  num- 

t>ers.  Hardest  Decem- 

ber ever  known. 

NORTHERS,    WINTER    OF    1859-60. 

First  genuine  norther, Sept.  SOjNumber  of  days  occupied, 101 

Last  genuine  norther, April  23j  Average  duration,  hours, 89 

Number  of  weeks'  time, 28Lowest  day's  temperature,  Dec.  6th,  ...16' 

Number  of  northers, 28|Lowest  3  days'  norther,  Dec.  6th, 20.3 

TEMPERATURE  AND    HYGROMETRY  OF    1859  AND  PART  OF  1860. 


18 

59. 

I860. 

January,  .  . 
February,  . 
March,.... 
April,  
May,  
June,  
July,  
August,... 
September, 
October,  .  .  . 
November, 
December,. 

Annual,  . 

SUNK. 

45.11 
46.04 

53.it; 

63.60 
73.40 
81.21 

IN. 

1.40 

4.85 
1.35 

o!35 
0.00 

41  .00 
55.19 
53.71 
59.44 
T1.48 
72.2:; 
82.05 
79.01 
75.30 
59.80 
55.16 
35.00 

63.58 
7"..:-.2 
71.50 
7'J.C'ii 
84.22 
SS.J1S 
89.77 
93.02 
85.00 
75.20 
74.43 
54,00 

47.19 

58.82 
59.00 
03.611 
71.13 
80.07 
S2.K 

XL'  .04 

78,00 
63.86 
61.16 
•40.00 

50.57 
02.44 
61.50 
65.31 
75.61 
81.56 
84.76 
84.90 
79.42 
66.29 
63.92 
43.00 

4S.IMI 

50.50 
54.50 
59.33 
69.33 
7<U5 
77.40 
79.36 
75.40 
64.53 
61.80 
42.25 

63.62 

4.76 
0.80 
1.5G 
0.75 
1.75 
2.50 
2.30 
0.40 
5.85 
6.60 
0.10 
3.00 

30.36 

60.00 
C7.20 
73.06 
78.63 
85.30 
94.21 

50.00 
53.04 
58.17 
66.20 
72.52 
81.27 

.M>.(  >:; 
55.40 
61.13 
69.47 
7H.22 
85.58 

4S.7:; 
50.17 
55.24 
64.2(1 
69.04 
5.18 

68.04 

&e 

60.42 

76.51 

63.03 

66.67 

60.44 

11.75 

APPENDIX  G.  433 


APPENDIX    G. 

PBOPORTIONOP  WOOL  TO  MEAT  IS  SHEEP  OP  DIFFEEEIIT 
AGES,  SEXES  AND  SIZES. 

THE  following  was  not  received  until  this  work  was  nearly  through 
the  press,  and  too  late  to  refer  to  it  except  in  this  place : 

POMPEY,  Onon.  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  22, 1863. 

HON.  HENRY  S.  RANDALL  —  Dear  Sir:  Agreeable  to  your  request,  I 
herewith  send  you  my  investigations  and  observations  upon  the  compar- 
ative weight  of  wool  and  bodies  of  sheep.  I  hope  they  will  be  of  benefit 
to  the  sheep  breeder,  as  well  as  tl«e  wool  grower ;  ana  that  I  shall  have 
the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  I  have  in  part  repaid  to  the  world  much 
that  I  owe  for  the  investigations  of  those  who  have  gone  before  me. 
With  high  hopes,  but  no  higher  ambition  than  to  beT  called  a  "  good 
farmer,"  I  remain  your  obedient  servant, 

HOMER  D.  L.  SWEET. 

COMPABATIVE   WEIGHT   OP   WOOL  ABTD   BODIES   OF   SHEEP. 
BY  H.  D.  L.  SWEET. 

The  Hon.  Robert  R.  Livingston,  the  first  President  of  the  first  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  his  justly  celebrated  essay 
on  Fine-Wooled  Sheep,  uses  the  following  language : 

"  The  inferiority  in  the  size  of  the  Merino  to  some  other  breeds, 
which  some  make  as  an  objection,  is,  in  my  opinion,  an  important 
advantage,  not  only  in  sheep  but  in  every  other  stock  not  designed  for 
the  draft ;  because  they  will  fatten  in  pastures  hi  which  larger  cattle 
would  suffer  from  the  fatigue  they  must  undergo,  in  order  to  procure 
the  food  that  is  necessary  for  their  support. 

"  This  meaning  applies  more  strongly  to  sheep  than  to  any  other 
stock.  They  are  generally  kept  upon  high  and  dry  pastures,  that  are 
frequently  parched  in  summer,  when  fatigue  is  most  irksome  to  them. 
To  which  we  may  add  that  the  fleece  is  not  proportioned,  as  the  food  is 
to  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  but  to  his  surface,  and  a  small  sheep  having 
more  surface  in  proportion  to  his  bulk,  must  also  have  wool  in  the  same 
proportion.  That  is,  a  sheep  whose  live  weight  shall  be  60  Ibs.,  and 
who,  of  course,  will  require  but  one-quarter  of  the  food  of  a  sheep  that 

ighs  240  Ibs.  will,  notwithstanding,  have  half  as  much  wool  (if  the 

jces  are  equally  thick,)  as  his  gigantic  brother."  * 

Transactions  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Useful  Arts,  Vol.  II,  p.  86. 


434  APPENDIX  G. 

In  proof  of  the  first  proposition,  that  sheep  do  consume  in  proportion 
to  their  bulk,  Mr.  Livingston  submits,  in  an  appendix  to  his  essay,  the 
record  of  many  experiments  which  show  conclusively  that  such  is  the 
fact ;  but  of  his  second  proposition,  that  they  shear  in  proportion  to  their 
surface,  he  gives  no  facts,  and  I  suppose  it  to  be  mere  theory.  The 
attention  of  the  writer  was  called  to  this  subject  by  the  Hon.  George 
Geddes,  some  four  years  since,  and  at  his  request  the  trial  was  made, 
and  the  result  has  been  given  to  the  world  by  yourself.  Experiments 
of  the  same  character  on  the  same  flock  have  been  conducted  for  three 
successive  years,  and  their  results  are  recorded  in  the  following  tables. 

In  one  or  two  points  they  are  not  as  perfect  as  I  could  wish,  but  they 
are  the  best  that  could  be  done  with  so  small  a  flock.  Had  there  been 
from  forty  to  fifty  in  each  class  and  every  year,  the  natural  law  hi  rela- 
tion to  them  might  be  nearer  in  accordance  with  the  facts  noted ;  for  as 
there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules,  I  may  be  giving  the  exception  and  not 
the  rule.  This  can  be  true  only  in  regard  to  five  and  six  year  old  ewes, 
and  five  year  old  wethers.  In  all  other  cases,  taking  the  tin  ee  years 
collectively,  I  am  confident  that  facts  of  value  have  been  obtained. 

The  base  of  the  flock  a  few  years  since  was  Saxon ;  they  are  now 
classed  from  one-half  to  seven-eighths  Spanish  Merino — a  portion  of  the 
largest,  in  1861,  was  one-quarter  French  Merino.  In  1861  the  ewes 
raised  35  lambs;  hi  1862,  30,  and  in  1863,70.  In  the  fall  of  '61  the 
oldest  and  largest  were  sold  and  replaced  by  60  lambs  purchased.  In 
the  fall  of  '62,  70  wether  lambs  were  purchased,  part  of  the  smallest  of 
them  were  sold,  some  three-year  old  ewes  purchased ;  and  some  older 
ones  sold.  Other  discrepancies  that  may  be  noted  are  attributable  to 
death.  They  were  all  brook-washed  about  two  weeks  before  shearing. 
The  flocks  at  the  time  of  shearing  were  in  good  condition  —  some  of  the 
ewes  thin,  of  course.  The  four  rams  in  the  flock  are  included  with  the 
wethers,  to  save  space,  figures  and  calculation.  The  first  table  is  the 
same  as  published  in  1862,  hi  Mr.  Randall's  Essay,  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  N.  Y.  S.  Agricultural  Society,  except  that  I  have  subdivided  the 
sexes.  The  fifth  table  is  the  same  as  the  second  one  then  published, 
except  that  I  have  added  the  last  three  classes,  and  called  them  one. 
They  were  sheared  the  26th  and  27th  of  June,  1861 ;  27th,  28th  and  30th 
of  June,  1862,  and  25th,  26th  and  27th  of  June,  1863.  Every  sheep  and 
fleece  were  weighed  separately  and  recorded  on  the  spot. 

['The  tables  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  are  given  on 
the  two  following  pages.] 


APPENDIX   G. 


435 


SWEET    BROTHER'S   FLOCK,   POMPEY,  N".   Y. 
TABLE  1.     1361.-  CLASSIFIED  BY  AGE   AND  SEX. 


No.  IN- 
CLASS. 

AGES. 

SE 
EWES 

XES, 
WETH'S. 

GROSS 

W'T.    OF 

WT.OF 

AVEK.  OF 

AVER.  OF 

Lus.  OF 

BODT   TO 

L  OF  WL. 

PER  Ci. 

OF  W.  TO 

GR.  WT. 

19 
13 
15 
15 
9 
42 
41 
26 

180 

1 

1 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 

E 

E 
E 

W 
W 
W 
W 

1,193.72 
965.23 
1,124.37 
1,383.92 
759.14 
4,155.11 
3,738. 
2,921.13 

1,097 
894 
1'048 
1,299 
710 
3,891 
3,557 
2,736 

96.72 
71.23 
76.37 
84.92 
49.14 
264.11 
181. 
185.13 

52.47 
68.77 
69.86 
86.66 
78.88 
92.64 
86.75 
105.11 

5.09 
5.48 
5.09 
5.66 
5.45 
6.28 
4.41 
7.12 

10.44 
12.55 
13.72 
15.29 
14.45 
14.73 
19.65 
14.76 

8.10 
7.37 
6.88 
•6.53 
6.46 
6.83 
4.84 
6.33 

1  to  4 

84 

96 

16.341. 

15,331 

1.010 

85.17 

5.38 

15.17 

6.18 

TABLE  2.    1862.—  CLASSIFIED   i 

JY  AGE   AND  SEX. 

42 
62 
19 
13 
14 
13 
9 
27 
15 
11 

215 

1 
1 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
5 

1  to  5 

E 
E 
E 
E 
E 

99 

W 
W 
W 
W 
W 

2,378.57 
3,224.51 
1,387.16 
1,225.16 
1,026.31 
1,297.36 
726.59 
2.693.06 
1,178.15 
1,153.40 

2,189 
2,985 
1,292 
1,147 
960 
1,215 
679 
2,505 
l|l  11 
1,075 

189.57 
239.51 
95.16 
78.16 
66.31 
82.36 
47.59 
188.06 
67.15 
78.40 

52.11 
67.40 
68. 
88.23 
68.57 
93.40 
77.44 
92.77 
74. 
97.72 

4.61 

4.60 
5. 
6. 
4.70 
6.33 
5.28 
6.96 
4.47 
7.12 

11.60 
12.46 
13.57 
14.60 
14.47 
14.75 
14.26 
13.32 
16.54 
13.71 

7.96 
7.42 
6.86 
6.46 
6.46 
6.35 
6.54 
6.98 
6.77 
7.00 

116      Il6.290.27 

15,158il,l:!2.27 

70.50 

5.26 

13.30 

6.95 

TABLE   3.     1863.—  CLASSIFIED   BY  AGE   AND    SEX. 

14 
78 
42 
48 
33 
13 
13 
9 
10 

1 
1 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
5 
6 

E 
E 
E 

E 
E 
E 

W 
W 

W 

955.78 
5,623.84 
2,861.64 
3,994.79 
2,837.24 
1,338.89 
1,154.68 
735.93 
837.84 

877 
5,201 
2,662 
3,735 
2,658 
1,251 
1,083 
680 
790 

78.78 
422.84 
199.64 
259.79 
179.24 
87.89 
71.68 
45.93 
47.84 

62.64 
66.67 
63.38 
77.81 
80.54 
96.23 
83.30 
75.35 
79.00 

6.62 
5.42 
4.75 
5.41 
5.40 
6.76 
6.51 
5.10 
4.78 

11.00 
12.30 
13.33 
14.37 
14.82 
14.23 
15.10 
14.82 
16.49 

8.24 
7.71 
6.97 
6.50 
6.31 
6.56 
6.26 
6.24 
5.70 

260 

1  to  6 

121 

139 

20,350.63 

18,957 

1,393.63 

72.91 

5.32 

13.58 

6.84 

TABLE  4.      AVERAGE   OF   THE   THREE  YEARS. 
Classified  by  Age  and  Sex,  the  Footing  being  the  three  Flocks  collectively. 


No.  IN 
CLASS. 

AGE. 

SEX. 

AV'AGB  WT. 
OF  Boor. 

AVERAGE  WT. 
OF  FLEECE. 

POUNDS  OF 
BODT  TO 
1  OF  WOOL. 

AVERAGE 
PER  CENT. 

75 

1 

E 

65.74 

5.07 

11.01 

8.10 

76 

2 

E 

67.08 

4.94 

13.54 

6.90 

56 

3 

E 

75.99 

5.18 

14.58 

6.41 

63 

4 

E 

82.49 

5.06 

16.33 

5.83 

24 

5 

E 

74.67 

4.75 

15.68 

6.00 

10 

6 

E 

79.00 

4.78 

16.49 

5.70 

143 

1 

W 

64.28 

5.16 

12.43 

7.50 

76 

2 

W 

84.23 

5.69 

14.77 

6.49 

68 

3 

W 

88.86 

6.45 

14.57 

6.58 

53 

4 

W 

103.94 

7,04 

14.04 

6.65 

11 

5 

W 

97.72 

uj 

13.71 

7.00 

EWES. 

WETH. 

655 

304 

351 

79.52 

5.32 

14.01 

6.65 

436 


APPENDIX   6. 


TABLE  5.    1861. — CLASSIFIED  BY  WEIGHT, 

In  divisions  of  10  Pounds  each,  except  those  weighing  less  than  50  /5s.,  and 
those  more  than  100  Ibs. 


No.  IN 
CLASS. 

WEIGHT 
OF  DIVIS- 
IONS. 

SE3 

EWES. 

E§. 

WETH. 

GROSS 
WEIGHT. 

W'T.     OF 

BODIES. 

WT.OF 
WOOL. 

AVER.OF|AVER.OFLLBS-OF 
BODIES.  FLEECES.|f°yYwTL° 

PER  CT. 

5 
14 
20 
34 
39 
34 
34 

42  to  51 
50  to  61 
«0  to  71 
70  to  81 
80  to  91 
90  to  101 
100tol34 

5 
10 
14 
21 
19 
11 
4 

4 
6 
13 
20 
23 
30 

256. 
871. 
1,427. 
2,742. 
3,566. 
3,453. 
4,026. 

234 
803 
1,320 
2,567 
3,355 
3,252 
3,800 

22. 

107! 
175. 
211. 

201. 
226. 

46.80 
67.35 
66. 
75.50 
86. 
95.64 
111.76 

4.40 
4.85 
5.35 
5.14 
5.41 
5.91 
6.67 

10.63 
11.80 
12.33 
14.66 
15.87 
15.42 
16.80 

8.59 
7.80 
7.49 
6.38 
5.90 
5.82 
5.61 

180 

42  to  134 

84 

96 

16,341. 

15,331 

1,010. 

85.17 

5.38 

15.17 

6.18 

TABLE  6.    1862. — CLASSIFIED   BY   WEIGHT,  AS  BEFORE. 


37 

34  to  51 

23 

14 

1,875. 

1,725 

150. 

46.60 

4.05 

11.50 

8.00 

41 

50  to  61 

19 

2,460. 

2,270 

190. 

55.37 

4.63 

11.94 

7.72 

42 

60  to  71 

25 

17 

2,940. 

2,740 

200. 

65.23 

4.75 

13.70 

6.80 

30 

70  to  81 

24 

6 

2,432. 

2,272 

160. 

75.73 

5.33 

14.20 

6.57 

25 

80  to  91 

6 

19 

2,266. 

2,110 

156. 

84.40 

6.24 

13.52 

6.88 

25 

90  to  101 

2 

23 

2,568. 

2,408 

160. 

96.32 

6.40 

15.05 

5.84 

15 

100tol27 

15 

1,743.27 

1,633 

110.27 

108.86 

7.35 

14.80 

6.32 

215 

34  to  127l  99 

116  116,290.27 

15,158 

1,132.27 

70.501   5.26 

13.3o!   6.95 

TABLE  7.    1863.— CLASSIFIED  BY  WEIGHT,  AS  BEFORE. 


10  136  to  51 

5 

5 

493. 

455 

38. 

40.50 

3.80 

11.97 

7.91 

34 

50  to  61 

15 

19 

2,009. 

1,850 

159. 

54.44 

4.67 

114.15 

7.90 

67 

50  to  71 

33 

34 

4  828 

4,480 

348. 

66.88 

6.19 

12.87 

7.20 

96 

70  to  81 

44 

52 

7,755. 

7,230 

525. 

75.30 

5.46 

13.77 

6.76 

28 

80  to  91 

14 

14 

2,550. 

2,390 

160. 

85.35 

5.71 

14.93 

6.23 

16 

90  to  101 

7 

9 

1,628. 

1,532 

96. 

95.75 

6.00 

15.85 

5.89 

9 

lOOtoUO 

3 

6 

1,087.63 

1,020 

67.63 

113.33 

7.51 

15.09 

6.21 

260 

36  to  140 

121 

139 

20,350.63 

18,957 

1,393.63 

72.9l|   5.32  1   13.58 

6.84 

TABLE  8.    THE  AVERAGE  OF  TABLES  5,  6  AND  7. 


No.  IN 

CLASS. 

WEIGHT  or 
DIVISIONS. 

SE3 
EWES. 

:ES. 

WETH'S. 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT  OF 
BODIES. 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT  OF 
FLEECES. 

POUNDS  OF 
BODY  TO 
1  OF  WOOL. 

Tl.36 
11.90 
12.96 
14.21 
14.77 
15.44 
15.56 

PER  CENT. 
OF  WOOL. 

8.16 
7.80 
7.13 
6.53 
6.33 
5.85 
6.04 

52 
89 
129 
160 
92 
75 
58 

34  to    51 
50  to    61 
60  to    71 
70  to    81 
80  to    91 
90  to  101 
100  to  140 

44 
72 
89 
39 
20 
7 

19 
45 
57 
71 
53 
55 
51 

44.63 
55.78 
66.03 
75.52 
85.25 
95.90 
111.31 

4.08 
4.71 
5.09 
5.31 
5.78 
6.10 
7.17 

655 

34  to  140 

304 

351 

79.52 

5.32 

14.01 

6.65 

The  value  of  these  tables  can  only  be  known  by  careful  comparison 
and  thorough  study .  of  them.  What  may  be  learned  I  have  not  now 
the  time  to  determine ;  but  from  a  very  cursory  glance  at  them,  I  learn 
that  Mr.  Livingston's  proposition  is  true.  Small  sheep  do  shear  more  in 
proportion  to  their  bulk  than  large  ones,  without  regard  to  age  or 


APPENDIX  G.  437 

sex.  I  learn,  also,  that  yearling  ewes  shear  the  largest  per  centage  they 
ever  will  shear,  and  that  they  shear  less  and  less  per  centage  as  they 
grow  older,  till  they  are  four  years  old.  They  gain  until  five,  when  they 
are  in  their  prime,  and  raising  a  lamb  at  that  age  does  not  decrease  the 
product  of  wool  as  it  has  done ;  but  at  six  they  have  passed  the  meri- 
dian, and  for  the  product  of  wool  commence  going  "  down  hill." 

It  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  wethers  shear  their  largest  per 
cent,  when  yearlings.  At  two,  they  have  lost  1  per  cent.,  after  which 
they  commence  gaining,  and  continue  to  gain  till  they  are  five  years  old, 
after  which  I  know  nothing  of  the  facts. 

The  facts  are  just  as  obvious  in  the  classification  by  weight.  The 
smallest  sheep  shear  the  largest  per  centage,  and  as  their  weight 
increases  the  fleece  decreases  in  proportion,  till  they  weigh  more  than  100 
Ibs.,  when  it  increases  the  fifth  of  1  per  cent. — a  smaller  increase  than  any 
decrease  in  either  of  the  tables.  This  being  the  exception  to  what 
before  seemed  to  be  the  rule,  leads  me  to  believe  that  the  number  in  the 
class  is  too  small,  and  that  I  ought  to  have  had  100  sheep  at  least  in  this 
class  to  arrive  at  the  truth.  If  it  could  be  ascertained  what  per  cent,  of 
lambs  100  or  1,000  ewes  would  raise,  and  the  average  market  price  of 
average  lambs  on  the  1st  of  October,  it  could  be  very  easily  calculated 
which  would  be  the  most  profitable  to  keep,  a  flock  of  ewes  or  wethers. 
But  as  there  is  no  likelihood  of  this  being  done,  and  as  ewes  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  increase  the  flock,  perhaps  no  farmer  will  be  bold 
enough  to  have  a  flock  exclusively  of  wethers,  though  I  am  confident 
that  these  tables  will  prove  that  the  wethers  have  brought  to  the  farm 
the  most  money  at  the  average  price  of  wool  and  lambs. 

If  I  had  the  tune  I  might  pursue  these  deductions  further,  with 
profit  to  myself  if  not  to  those  who  read ;  but  I  think  enough  has 
already  been  disclosed  to  give  any  inquiring  mind  a  stimulus  to  pursue 
the  investigation.  Every  wool  raiser  ought  to  know  which  of  his  sheep 
he  is  keeping  at  a  profit  and  which  at  a  loss.  By  weighing  the  fleeces  as 
they  are  shorn,  he  thinks  he  knows  all  about  it,  when  in  reality  he 
knows  nothing,  or  at  the  best  only  half.  At  sheep  shearing  the  careful 
breeder  ought  to  know  what  any  sheep  ought  to  shear  when  it  comes 
on  the  floor.  For  instance,  next  year  we  shall  have  a  dozen  four 
year  old  wethers,  any  one  of  which  ought  to  weigh  somewhere  near 
ninety  pounds  and  shear  seven  pounds.  If  any  one  weighs  up  to  the 
average  of  the  last  threeyears,  and  shears  above  the  average,  keep  him 
—  if  below,  sell  him.  When  a  ewe  is  brought  on  the  floor,  other  things 
have  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  she  is  to  breed,  viz.,  the  quality 
of  the  wool,  the  form  of  the  body,  beside  the  weight  of  the  fleece  and 
weight  of  the  body.  If  she  has  raised  a  lamb,  it  must  be  examined ;  if 
a  ewe  lamb,  particularly.  In  our  flock  we  have  now  made  a  standard 
to  which  we  can  refer ;  our  efforts  of  course  will  be  to  excel  it.  Those 
who  keep  flocks  expressly  for  their  increase,  will  make  a  standard  of 
their  own,  and  those  who  keep  sheep  exclusively  for  wool,  will  make 
their  standard  accordingly.  Every  breeder  ought  to  know  every  fact 
certainly,  and  have  his  record  to  refer  to. 


438  APPENDIX  H. 


APPENDIX  H  —  (page  75.) 

THE  AMEBIOAN   MERINOS  AT   THE   INTEKNATIONAL 
EXHIBITION  OP  1863. 

IT  was  noticed  at  page  75  that  Mr.  George  Campbell,  of  West  West- 
minster, Vermont,  took  American  Merino  sheep  to  exhibit  at  the 
International  Exhibition  at  Hamburg,  in  July,  1863.  The  result  was 
not  ascertained  in  time  to  be  alluded  to  in  the  body  of  this  work. 

Mr.  Campbell  found  1,761  sheep  competing  in  the  same  class  with 
his  own.  They  were  from  the  Austrian,  Prussian  and  other  States  of 
Germany,  and  from  France.  Among  the  French  sheep  competing  were 
about  sixty  belonging  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon.  Mr.  Campbell  was 
awarded  the  first  prize  of  fifty  thalers  for  the  best  ram,  the  second  prize 
of  twenty-five  thalers  for  the  second  best  ram,  and  the  first  prize  of  fifty 
thalers  for  the  best  ewes. 

The  Committee  of  Award  consisted  of  eighteen  noblemen  and 
gentlemen.  The  examinations  were  made  by  sub-committees,  whose 
preliminary  reports  were  subject  to  the  revision  of  the  general  committee. 
The  American  sheep  had  encountered  a  certain  degree  of  prejudice 
from  their  first  arrival.  The  breeders  of  the  old  world,  and  particularly 
of  Germany,  seemed  to  think  it  audacious  that  Americans,  who  had  so 
often  imported  sheep  from  Germany,  should  now  enter  the  lists  as 
competitors  against  them.  And  when  a  rumor  began  to  gain  ground 
that  the  sub  -  committee  were  disposed  to  award  one  and  then  two  first 
prizes  to  the  American  Merinos,  it  caused  loud  expressions  of  dissatis- 
faction, which  were  promptly  re-echoed  in  the  German  newspapers. 
Notwithstanding,  and  in  defiance  of  all  of  this,  the  general  committee 
with  manly  independence  ratified  the  action  of  the  sub-committee  by  a 
unanimous  vote.  On  the  ofilcial  promulgation  of  the  decision,  the 
previous  censures  took  the  form  of  accusations.  It  was  asserted  that 
the  committee  had  been  unduly  influenced.  Thereupon  Col.  Daniei 
Needham,  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Vermont  State  Agricultural 
Society,  wjio  was  present  at  the  Exhibition  as  the  Commissioner  of  the 
State  of  Vermont,  after  conferring  with  the  U.  S.  Commissioner,  Gov. 
Wright,  and  Mr.  Campbell,  published  a  card  in  the  German  tongue, 
projBsing  a  sweepstakes  open  to  all  the  previous  competitors  —  the 
awjird  to  be  made  by  a  new  committee,  to  be  selected  by  the  German 
association  under  whose  auspices  and  direction  the  International 
Exhibition  took  place.  Col.  Needham's  proposal  was  that  each  com- 
petitor pay  an  entrance  fee  of  $10;  and  if  there  were  less  than  ten  entries 
he  offered  himself  to  make  up  the  prize  to  $100.  This  offer,  (substantially 
a  challenge  to  a  new  trial,)  was  posted  and  circulated  among  all  the 
competitors.  Mr.  Campbell  immediately  entered  his  sheep,  but  Ms  was 
Vie  only  entry  !  This  rendered  the  triumph  of  the  American  Merinos 
absolute  and  undeniable;  and  the  press  and  public,  with  that  hearty 
honesty  which  always  marks  the  German  national  character,  did  ample 
justice  to  the  Americans  and  to  the  American  sheep.  Mr.  Campbell 
sold  his  prize  sheep,  twelve  in  number,  to  a  Prussian  nobleman  for  $5,000. 


APPENDIX   H.  439 

The  highest  priced  foreign  Merino  sold  at  the  Exhibition  fetched  but  £40, 
or  $200.  The  preceding  facts  are  stated  on  the  personal  authority  of 
Mr.  Campbell  and  Col.  Needham. 

I  cannot  here  withhold  a  pleasing  fact  which  strikingly  evidences 
the  fairness  and  the  modesty  of  the  victorious  exhibitor  at  Hamburg. 
Col.  Needham  informs  me  that  Mr.  Campbell  on  all  occasions,  signified 
to  the  breeders  of  Germany  and  France,  and  requested  him,  (Col. 
Needham,)  to  signify  that  he  was  not  the  founder  or  leading  breeder  of 
the  improved  family  of  American  Merinos,  which  his  (Mr.  Campbell's,) 
sheep  chiefly  represented — but  that  this  honor  belonged  to  Mr.  Hammond. 
Mr.  C.'s  show  sheep  were,  if  I  remember  aright,  all  from  his  celebrated 
ram  "  Old  Grimes  "  bred  by  Mr.  Hammond  and  got  by  his  "  Sweep- 
stakes." "Old  Grimes"  competed  against  his  sire  in  the  great 
sweepstakes  at  the  Vermont  State  Fair  of  1861,  and  stood  second.  He 
is  remarkable  for  individual  excellence  and  as  a  stock  getter. 

I  was  one  of  those  consulted  by  Mr.  Campbell  in  reference  to  taking 
American  Merinos  to  the  International  Exhibition,  and  I  strongly 
encouraged  him  to  do  so.  I  had  just  as  little  doubt  of  their  success  then 
as  now,  provided  they  could  receive  fair  play ;  and  I  never  for  an  instant 
doubted  that  among  the  many  Germans  they  would  receive  the  same 
fair  play  which  our  stock  and  products  have  received  at  all  these  World's 
Fairs.  In  Germany  as  in  England,  we  encountered  some  prejudice- 
but  when  the  time  for  official  action  arrived,  it  always  gave  way  like  a 
morning  mist  before  the  broad,  bright  sun  of  personal  and  official 
honor. 


LIST   OE   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Merino  Ram  "  Sweepstakes," Frontispiece 

Spanish  Wool, 16 

Saxon  Ram, 26 

Merino  Ewe,  (Imported  Paular,) 31 

Merino  Ewe,  (Old   Fashioned,) 34 

Silesian  Merino  Ram, 38 

Group  of  Silesian  Ewes, 41 

Leicester  Ram, 45 

Leicester  Ewe, 47 

Cotswold  Ram, 48 

Cotswold  Ewe, 50 

South  Down  Ram, 56 

South  Down  Ewes, 57 

Shropshire  Down  Ram, 62 

Shropshire  Down  Ewe, 64 

Shepherd's  Crook 139 

Tagging,  illustrated, 141 

Toe-Nippers, 169 

Folding  Tables, 173 

Fleece  Ready  for  Press, 173 

Fleece  in  Press, 174 

Wool  Press, 174 

Tattooing  Instruments,  (three  figures,) 184 

Ears  Tattooed, ; 184 

Metal  Ear  -  Mark, 185 

Dipping  Box, 187 

Shed  of  Poles 211 

Sheep  Barn,  with  Open  Sheds, 213 

Ground  Plan  of  Sheep  Barn  and'  Yards, 217 

Ground  Plan  of  a  Sheep  Establishment, 218 

Slatted  Box  Rack, 230 

Wall  Rack  and  Trough 231 

End  View  of  Wall  Rack  and  Trough, 232 

Skull  of  a  Sheep, 265 

Teeth  of  the  Sheep, 266 

Section  of  Sheep's  Head, 273 

Gr.d-Fly  of  the  Sheep, 274 

The  "  Grub  "  or  Larva  of  the  Gad -Fly,  (three  figures,) 274 

The  Stomachs, 294 

Internal  Appearance  of  Stomachs, 295 

The  Intestines  and  Mesentary, 303 

Spanish  Sheep  Dog, ,  397 

The  Scotch  Sheep  Dog,  or  Colley, 409 

The  English  Sheep,  or  Drover's  Dog 407 


INDEX. 


Abortion,  329. 
Abscess,  382. 
Adams,  Seth  imports  Merinos  into  United 

States,  22. 
Allen,  A.  B.  describes  first  French  Merinos 

imported  into  United  States,  35. 
recommends  tar,  sulphur  and  alum  for 

diseased  sheep,  194. 
Anatomy  of  the  sheep,  264,  et  seq. 
cut  of  skeleton,  264. 
cut  of  skull,  265. 
cut  of  teeth,  266. 

cut  of  section  of  sheep's  head,  273. 
the  omentums  described,  293. 
cut  of  external  appearance  of  stomachs, 

294. 
cut  of  internal  appearance  of  stomachs, 

stomachs  and  their  functions  described, 

295. 
mode  of  introducing  medicines  into 

the  stomach,  299. 
cut  of  the  intestines,  303. 
Apoplexy,  280. 
Arlington  loug-wooled  sheep,  origin  of  44, 

Atwood.  Stephen,  his  family  of  Merinos 

described,  28,  29. 
his  family  of  Merinos  compared  with 

Mr.  Jarvis'  28. 
their  improvement  in  other  hands,  29, 

30. 

a  strict  in-and-in  breeder,  120. 
the  improved  Paulars  receive  a  cross 

from  his  flock,  417-419. 


Baker,  the  Messrs.,  their  experiments  in 

crossing  French  and  American  Me- 

rinos, 129  note. 
Bakewell,  Robert,  the  great  improver  of 

Leicester  sheep,  45. 
an  in-and-in  breeder,  46,  119. 
in-and-in  breeding  formed  an  element 

of  his  success,  132. 
origin  of  his  flock  not  probably  drawn 

from  different  breeds,  133. 
Ms  sheep  improved  by  Cotswold  blood, 

47,  133. 


19* 


Bakewell,   Robert,   he  purposely  rotted 

sheep,  376. 

Barns  for  sheep,  construction  of,  212-219. 
cuts  of  213,  217,  218. 
should  be  cleaned  out  in  winter,  219. 
Beanes,    Capt.,    imports   Teeswater   and 

South  Down  sheep,  44  note. 
Bedford,  Dr.,  on  the  necessity  of  exercise, 

etc.,  to  pregnant  females,  222. 
Beets  as  sheep  feed,  243. 
Bement,  Caleb  N.,  his  account  of  C.  Dunn's 

flock,  44  note. 

Biflex  Canal,  disease  of,  354,  355. 
Bigelow,  Dr.,  account  of  St.  Johns-wort, 

Black-faced  Scotch  sheep  described,  51. 
introduced  into  the  United  States  by 

Samuel  Campbell,  52. 
weight  of  their  fleeces,  52. 
imported  by  Sanford  Howard,  52. 
Blacklock,  Mr.,  cited  in  regard  to  diseases 

of  sheep,  277,  316. 
^.ain,  291,  292. 
Blanchard,  H.,  introduces  the  Wool  Depot 

system,  177. 
Bleeding,  place  for,  314,  315. 

mode  of  performing,  314,  315. 
Boardman,  S.  P.,  states  cost  of  getting 
wool  and  other  products  to  market 
from  Illinois,  251  note, 
his  article  on  prairie  sheep  husbandry, 

260. 

Brain,  hydatid  on,  277-279. 
water  on,  279,  280. 
inflammation  of  the,  281. 
Braxy,  311. 

Breeding,  in-and-in,  extent  of  among  im- 
proved Infantados,  30. 
definition  of  the  term,  101. 
like  produces  like,  101. 
breeding  back,  101. 
causes   of    hereditary  transmission 
partly  controllable,  101,  102. 
likeness    inherited   with    unifon 

among  full  bloods,  102. 
mongrels,  etc.,  do  not  transmit  like- 
ness with  uniformity,  102. 
counteracting  the  defects  of  one  parent 
by  the  excellencies  of  the  other,  103. 
hereditary  predispositions   to  be  re 

garded,  103. 

accidental    characteristics,    how    ac 
counted  for,  103, 104. 


rmity 


442 


INDEX. 


Breeding,   accidental  characteristics   are 
sometimes    vigorously    reproduced 

Breeding,  great  extent  of  their  in-and-in 
breeding,  119  note. 

and  become  established,  103-106. 
are  peculiarities  acquired  after  birth 

it  formed   an   important  element   of 
their  success,  122. 

transmissable  ?  103  note. 

it  is  almost  necessary  in  some  cases. 

accidental   characteristics   less  trans-!           122. 

missable  when  opposed  to  the  specia 

it  is  not  safe  for  ordinary  breeders,  122. 

ones  of  the  breed,  105. 

more  have  failed  than  have  succeeded 

breeding  between  animals  possessing 

in  it,  123. 

the  same  defect  to  be  avoided,  106. 
relative  influence  of  sire  and  dam  on 

is  it  more  dangerous  among  grade  ani- 
mals ?  123. 

progeny,  106. 
the  theory  that  the  animal  organiza 
tion  is  transmitted  by  halves,  107. 
Mr.    Walker's    modification   of    this 

crossing  breeds    and  families  —  (For 
everything  connected  with  crossing 
see  Cross  -  Breeding), 
expedient  to  adhere  to  one  breed  and 

theory,  107,  et  seq. 
Mr.  Spooner's  views  on  the  same  sub- 

family if  it   possesses  proper   ele- 
ments of  improvement,  131. 

ject,  107,  et  seq. 

the  most  splendid  successes  have  beeu 

the  foregoing  theories  examined,  107- 

properties  transmitted  by  degrees,  not 
by  halves,  109. 

won  in  this  way,  131,  and  note, 
great  skill    of   English    breeders   in 
breeding  mutton  sheep,  132  note, 
breeding  lambs  for  butcher,  133,  134. 

mode  of  their  transmission,  109. 
the  ram  oftenest  transmits  his  externa' 

breeding  mutton  sheep  on  the  prairies, 

structure  to  progeny,  109,  110. 
the  ram  oftenest  gives  size  and  a  part 
of  the  qualities  of  the  fleece,  110. 

•When  cross-breeding  is  expedient,  and 
when  inexpedient  generally,  136-138. 
Breeds  of  sheep  best  adapted  to  different 

influence  of  the  ewe  on  the  progeny, 

situations,  82-90. 

110. 
causes  of  the  ram's  superiority  in  this 
particular,  110,  et  seq. 

rules  for  determining  that  adaptation, 

82-90. 
influence  of  markets,  82-85. 

influence  of  higher  breeding   among 

influence  of  climate,  85,  86. 

full  bloods,  111,  112. 

influence  of  vegetation,  86-88. 

influence  of   pure   over  grade,    etc., 

influence  of  soils,  88,  89. 

blood,  111. 

influence  of  herding,  89. 

why  rams    of  same   blood    differ   in 

influence   of  associated   branches    of 

transmitting  their  qualities,  111. 

husbandry,  89,  90. 

influence  of  physical  and  sexual  vigor, 

comparative  hardiness  of  English,  87. 

112. 
indications  of  these  in  the  ram,  112 

working  qualities  of  different  breeds,87. 
crossing  between  different—  (see  Cross- 

note,  113. 

Breeding.) 

ability  of  rams  to  procreate  at  differ- 
ent ages,  113. 

longevity  of  different,  113. 
Broad  -Tailed  sheep  introduced  into  the 

period  of  procreation  in  Merino,  113. 

United  States,  53. 

longevity  of  different  breeds,  113,  114. 
does  the  male  which  first  impregnates 

bred  pure  in  South  Carolina,  53. 
Bronchitis,  326. 

a  female  influence  her   subsequent 

Brugnone  cited  in  regard  to  diseases  of 

offspring?  114 

sheep,  277-302. 

Mr.  CHne's  theory  that  small  males 

Bruises  and  strains.  382. 

and  large  females  should  be  coupled, 
114,  115. 

Buignot  inoculates  for  small  pox,  349. 
3urs  should  be  eradicated  from  pastures, 

in-and-in  breeding,  how  the  term  is 

142. 

used  in  this  work,  116. 

the  different   kinds   of,  injurious   to 

Sir  John  Sebright's   views,  and   his 

wool,  142. 

use  of  this  term,  116-118. 

prejudice   against   breeding  in-and-in 
in  the  United  States,  116. 

C 

its   effect  where   hereditary  diseases 

prevail,  117. 

Campbell,     George,     takes    Merinos    to 

it  results  from  Divine  ordination  in 

World's   Fair   at   Hamburg,    75. 

many  instances,  117,  118. 

length   of  wool    on   sheep    taken   to 

difference  between  men  and  brutes  in 

World's  Fair,  75. 

this  particular,  118. 
difference  between  wild  and  domesti- 

pedigrees of  the  sheep,  76. 
his  mode  of  tattooing  sheep,  184. 

cated  brutes  in  this  particular,  118. 

his  sheep  victorious  at  the  World's 

under  what    circumstances    in-and-in 

Fair,  438,  439. 

breeding  is  fatal,  118. 

his  honorable  conduct,  439. 

under  what  circumstances  it  is  innoc- 

pedigree of  his  stock  ram,  439. 

uous,  118. 

Campbefl,    Samuel,    and    James   Brodie, 

eminent  foreign  in-and-in  breeders,  119. 

import  Leicester  sheep,  47. 

INDEX. 


443 


Campbell,  Samnel.  and  James  Brodic,  cats 
of  a  ram  and  ewe  belonging  to  them, 

import  Cheviot  sheep,  52. 
Canada  Breeders  of,  351. 
Carcass  the  first  point  to  be  regarded  in 

sheep,  69. 
proper  form  and  size  of  the  Merino. 

69. 

Carrots  as  sheep  feed,  243. 
Castration,  101. 
Catarrh,  268,  318,  319. 

Malignant  epizootic,  319-324. 
Catching  and  handling  sheep,  proper  mode 

of;  131-141. 
Chamberlain,  William,  his  account  of  the 

present  Merinos  in  Spain,  17,  18. 
introduces  Silesian  Merinos  into  the 

United  States,  39. 
his  description  of  his  sheep,  39-42. 
cut  of  a  group  of  his  ewes,  41. 
a  close  in-and-in  breeder,  120. 
time  he  has  his  lambs  yeaned,  143  note. 
Chevoit  sheep  introduced  into  the  United 

States,  52. 

character  of  the  unimproved  family,  52. 
the  improved  family  described,  52,  53. 
Chilled  Lambs,  how  treated,  148,  149. 
Chinese,  or  Nankin  sheep   in  the  United 

States,  54. 
Choking,  292,  293. 

Clapp,  the  Messrs.,  their  experiments  in 
crossing  French  and  American  Meri- 
nos, 129  note. 
Clark,  Bracy,  cited  in  regard  to  diseases  of 

sheep,  274.  275. 
Clift,  Leonard  D.,  imports  Lincoln  sheep 

in  1835,  50. 

character  of  his  sheep,  50, 
Climate  to  be  regarded  in  selecting  a  breed 

of  sheep,  85,  86. 
Cline,  Mr.,  his  views  on  disparity  in  size 

of  sire  and  dam  in  breeding,  114. 
Closed  Teats,  157. 
Clover,  as  sheep  feed,  235,  237,  246. 
Clumps  of  trees  in  pastures,  utility  of,  212. 
Colic,  310. 
Colley,  (See  Dog.) 

Collins,  D.  C.,  introduces  French  Merinos 
in  the  United  States,  34. 
description  of  his  she  ep,  35. 
Coloring  Sheep  artificially,  a  fraud,  81. 
Confinement,  eflect  of  on  pregnant  ewes 


Congenital  Goitre,  or  swelled  neck,  152- 

154. 
Constipation  of  sheep,  221,  228,  310. 

of  young  lambs,  149. 
Consumption,  327,  328,  379. 
Corning,  Erastus,  with  Wm.  H.  Sotham 

imports  Cotswold  sheep,  48. 
Cornstalks  as  sheep  feed,  245,  258. 
Cossit,  Capt.  Davis,  his  remarkable  sue 

cess  in  crossing  Infantado  and  Saxon 

Merinos,  130  and  note, 
pedigree  of  his  ram,  "  Wrinkly  3d,' 

415. 

Costiveness,  (See  Constipation.) 
Cotswold  Sheep  introduced  into  the  Uni 

ted  States  about  35  years  since,  48. 


Cotswold  Sheep,  imported  by  Mr.  Dunn  in 

1832,  48. 
imported  by  Messrs.  Corning  &  Sotham 

in  1840,  48. 

imported  by  Henry  G.  White,  49. 
described  by  Mr.  Spooner,  49. 
Crook,  shepherd's,  manner  of  using,  139. 

cut  of,  139, 
Cross  -  breeding,  meaning  of  term  as  used 

in  this  book,  124. 
effects  of  between  the  Merinos  and 

coarse  breeds,  124. 
the  Merino  unimprovable  by  such  a 

cross,  124. 
the   Merino    cross   improves    coarse 

sheep  for  certain  purposes,  125. 
the  cross  between  Merino  and  mutton 

sheep  results  in  failure,  124,  125, 
the  cross  between  the  Merino  and  long 

wools,  125. 
the  cross   between  the  Merino  and 

Downs,  125. 

permanent  intermediate  varieties  un- 
attainable, 125. 

peculiar  tenacity  of  hereditary  trans- 
mission in  the  Merino,  125. 
due  probably  to  its  great  purity  and 

antiquity  of  blood,  125  note, 
coarse  breeds  can  be  merged  in  it,  126. 
grade  flocks  started  in  Texas,  126. 
successful  cross  between  Merino  and 

Mexican  sheep,  126. 
experience  of  Mr.  Kendall  in  this  par- 
ticular, 126,  note, 
choice  rams  desirable  in  such  a  cross , 

127. 
grades  never  equal  to  pure  Merinos, 

127. 

French  ideas  on  this  subject,  127. 
German  ideas  on  same  subject,  127. 
degrees  of  blood  in  ascending  crosses 

reckoned,  127  note, 
crossing  different  families  of  Merinos, 

127-130. 

effect  of  in  the  French  Merino,  128. 
effect  of,  in  Mr.  Jarvis'  flock,  128. 
effect  of,  in  the  Rich  or  improved  Pan- 

lars,  128  and  note, 
effect  of  in  the    Silesian  Merinos  of 

the  United  States,  128, 129. 
•between   the   American   and   French 

Merino,  129  and  note, 
between  the  American  and  Saxon  Me- 
rino, 129. 
remarkable  result  of  an  improved  In- 

fantado   and   Saxon  cross,  130  and 

note, 
inexpediency  of  crossing  for  the  sake 

of  crossing,  130.  131. 
ordinary  reasons  for  crossing  unfound- 
ed, 131. 
bad  effects  of  frequent  and  unmeaning 

crosses,  131. 
always  better  to  adhere  to  one  breed 

and  family  if  it  contains  the  elements 

of  improvement,  131. 
the  most  splendid  successes  have  been 

secured  in  this  way,  131,  and  note, 
crossing  between  English 

families,  132. 


444 


Cross-breeding,  the  Hampshire,  Shropshire 
and  Oxfordshire  Downs  produced  in 
this  way.  132. 
but  the  failures  in   blending   breeds 

have  been  far  more  numerous,  132. 
skill  of  the  English  breeders,  132  note, 
successful  to  obtain  larger  and  earlier 

lambs  for  the  butcher,  133. 
expediency  of  thus  crossing  with  local 

families,  134. 

Mr.  Tkorne's  experience  in  this  par- 
ticular, 134,  135  note, 
an  analogous  cross  for  mutton  raising 

expedient  in  Western  States,  135. 
the  English  family  which  should   be 

selected  for  this  purpose,  135,136. 
the  cross  should  stop  with  the  first 

one,  134. 

recapitulation,  showing  when  crossing 
is  expedient,  and  when  inexpedient, 
136-138. 

Crossing,  (See  Cross-breeding.) 
Cutaneous  Diseases,  unnamed  ones,  344, 

345. 

Cuts,  380. 
Cutting  teeth,  150. 
Cystitis,  337. 


D'Arboval  Hurtel  cited  in  regard  to  dis 

eases  of  Sheep,  314,  849,  350. 
Darlington,  Dr.  his  account  of  Si.  John's 

wort,  269. 
Darwin,  M.,  his  account  of  South  Ameri 

can  sheep-dogs,  405. 

enton's  directions  fo 


Paubet 


i  for  bleeding  sheep 


Delafond,  Mr.,  on  history  of  small  pox,  349 
Delessert,  M.,  imports  Merinos  into  United 

States,  22. 
Dewees,  Dr.,  on  proper  treatment  of  preg 

nant  iemales,  336. 
Diarrhea,  306-308,  380. 

in  young  lambs,  151. 
Dickens,  Mr.,  cited  in  regard  to  diseases  o 

sheep,  a37. 

Dick,  Professor,  on  hoof-rot,  358  note. 
Diseases  and  wounds  of  Sheep,  261,  et  seq 
comparatively  small  number  of  in  Uni 

ted  States,  261,  262. 
low  type  of  American  sheep  diseases 

Abortion,  329. 

Abscess,  382. 

Apoplexy,  280. 

Biftex  Canal,  disease  of  354. 

Blain,  291,  292. 

Braxy,  or  inflammation  of  the  bowels 

311. 

Bronchitis,  326. 
Bruises  and  Strains,  382. 
Catarrh,  268,  318,  319. 
Catarrh,  malignant  epizootic,  319-324. 
Choking,  292,  293. 
Cold  (see  Catarrh.) 
Colic,  310. 

Constipation.  221,  228,  310. 
Constipation  in  young  lambs,  149,  15( 
Consumption,  3",>7,  328,  379. 


iseases  and  wounds  of  Sheep,  Costive- 
ness,  (see  Constipation.) 

Cutaneous  diseases,  unnamed  ones, 
344,345. 

Cuts.  380. 

Cystitis,  (see  Inflammation  of  the 
bladder.) 

Diarrhea,  306-308,  380. 

Diarrhea  in  young  lambs,  151. 

Distemper,  the,  324. 

Dog  Bites,  381. 

Dropsy,  acute,  or  Red  Water,  304. 

Dysentery,  308-310,  379,  380. 

Enteritis,  306. 


Epizootic  of  1846-47,  319  etseq. 

Eye,  inflammation  of,  272. 
•Fever,  316. 

Fever,  inflammatory,  316,  317. 

Fever,  malignant  inflammatory,   317, 
318. 

Fever,  parturient,  331-337. 

Fever,  puerperal.  331-337. 

Fever,  typhus,  318. 

Foot-rot— (see  Hoof-Rot.) 

Fouls,  356. 

Fractures,  354. 

Garget,  157,  330. 

Gravel,  355. 

Grub  in  the  head,  273,  277. 

Goitre,  congenital,  152,  154. 

Head,  Grub  in,  273-277. 

Hereditary  diseases.  379,  380- 

Hoof -Rot,  356-371,381. 

Hoove.  209-301. 

Hydatid  on  the  Brain,  277-279,  380. 

Ignis  Saccr.  344. 

Inflammation  of  cellular  tissue  under 
the  tongue— (see  Blaiu.) 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder.  337. 

Inflammation  of  the  brain,  281. 

Inflammation  of  the  coats  of  the  in- 
testines. 306. 

Inflammation  of  the  Eye  272. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs,. (see  Pneu- 
monia.) 

Inflammation  of  the  udder,  (see  Gar- 
get.) 

Inversion  of  the  womb,  145  ,  330. 

La  Clavelee,  (see  Small-pox.) 

Lameness,  355,  356. 

Madness,  (see  Rabies.) 

Obstructions  of  the  gullet,  292,  293. 

Opthalmia,  272,  279. 

Palsy,  283. 

Parturient  fever,  331-337. 

Phthisis,  (see  Consumption.) 

Pining,  312. 

Pinning,  151. 

Pleurisy,  (see  Plenritis.) 

Pleuritis,  326,  327. 

Pneumonia,  325,  379. 

Poisons,  301,  302. 

Puerperal  fever,  331-337. 

Rabies,  283-290. 

Rheumatism.  155,  156,  379. 

Rot,  the  372-378. 

Rot,  cut  of  the  Fluke,  374. 

Scab,  erysipelatous  344. 
Scab,  the  338,  343. 


445 


Diseases  and  wounds  of  Sheep,  Scours  (see  Ely,  David,  his  "  little  -  eared  "  sheep,  104. 


Diarrhea.) 

Scrofula,  378,  380. 

Small-pox,  345-353. 

Sore  Pace,  269-271. 

Spruins,  382. 

Stretches,  310. 

Swelled  Head,  268. 

Swelled  Lips,  271. 

Swelled  Neck,  152, 154,  380. 

Teeth,  cutting  of  the  150. 

Tetanus,  or  Locked-Jaw,  281,  282. 

Variola  Ovina— (see  Small-pox.) 

Water  on  the  brain,  279.  280. 

Wild  Fire,  344. 

Worms,  312. 

Wounds,  380-382 

Wounds,  lacerated  and  contused,  381. 

Wounds,  poisoned,  381,  382. 

Wounds,  punctured,  381. 
Disowning  Lambs,  158,  159. 
Distemper,  the,  324. 
Docking  Lambs,  160, 161. 
Dog,  bites  of  the,  381. 

the  dog,  in  connection  with  sheepi  393, 
et  seq. 

injuries  inflicted  by,  on  sheep,  393-3%. 

sheep  dog  described  by  Buffon,  396. 

Spanish,  397. 

Hungarian,  400. 

French,  401. 

Mexican,  401-405. 

South  American,  405,  406. 

other  large  races,  406. 

English,  or  drover's,  407. 

Scotch,  or  Colley,  408-410. 

mongrel  Colley,  a  sheep  killer,  410. 

accustoming  the  sheep  to  the  dog,  411. 
Down  Sheep,  (see  South  Downs,  Hamp- 
shire Downs,  Shropshire  Downs  and 
Oxfordshire  Downs.) 
Drafting  and  selection,  in  flocks,  179. 
Dropsy,  acute,  304. 
Drying  off  ewes,  158. 
Dun,  Finlay,  on  hereditary  diseases,  379, 

380. 

Dunn,  Christopher,  origin  of  his  Leicester 
flock,  44. 

character  of  his  flock,  44  note, 
crosses  it  with  Cotswold  rams,  48. 
Dunglison's  Medical  Dictionary,  cited  pas- 
sim. 
Dupont  de  Nemours,  imports  Merinos  into 

United  States,  22. 
Dysentery,  308-310,  379,  380. 

E 

Elithorp,  Prosper,  length   of  his  Merino 

wool,  76. 
crosses  the  Paular  and  Infantado  sheep, 

128  note. 

his  remedy  for  stretches,  310. 
his  connection  with  the  origin  of  the 

improved  Paular  family,  417-419. 
furnishes  an  account  of  origin  of,  419. 
Ellman,  Mr.,  his  success  inbreeding  South 

Down  sheep,  55  et  seq. 
followed  in-and-in  breeding,  119. 
it  was  an  element  of  his  success,  122. 


English   Breeders,    their    great    skill  in 

breeding  mutton  sheep,  132  note. 
Enteritis,  306 


tic  among  sheep  in  1846-17,  319,  et 

seq. 

the  lamb  epizootic  of  1862, 154,  226. 
the  term  defined,  226  note. 
Escurial  Merino,  14. 
Ewe,  influence  of  on  progeny,  110. 

fall  feed  and  shelter  necessary  for,  202- 

205. 
effect  of  neglect  in  this  particular,  203, 

204. 

"  hunger  rot "  described,  203,  204. 
subject  to  other  diseases  when  in  low 

condition,  204. 
does  not  take  the  ram  uniformly  when 

poor,  205. 

selection  of  for  the  ram,  205,  206. 
coupling  with  the  ram,  modes  of,  206, 

period  of  gestation  in,  207. 

want   of    sagacity   in   protecting    its 

young,  213. 
injurious  eflects  of  close  confinement 

on,  222,  et  seq. 
should  not  be  confined  to  dry  feed  in 

winter,  222,  et  seq. 
its  prolificacy  affected  thereby,  222  et 

seq. 
Exercise  important  for  pregnant  ewes,  223, 

Experiments    in    fattening    sheep,   418- 

425. 
Eye,  inflammation  of,  272. 


Face,  sore,  269-271. 

Fall  management  of  sheep,  (s 

ment  of  sheep  in  fall). 
Fat-Rumped  sheep  introduced   into  the 

United  States,  53. 
i  Fattening  Sheep,  418-425. 
Fay,  Richard  S..  imports  Shropshire  sheep 

into  United  States,  66. 
character  of  his  sheep,  66,  67. 
Feed,  different  values  of,  for  fattening,  420- 

^.:periments  in  mixing,  419  et  seq. 
Feeds  for  sheep— (see  Fodder.) 
Feeding  sheep,  _Mr.  Pawlett's  experiments 

Felting  'property  of  wool,  how  produced, 

Fences  for  sheep,  value  of  different,  233, 

245. 
Fever,  316. 

inflammatory,  316,  317. 
malignant  inflammatory,  317,  318. 
typhus,  318. 
parturient,  331-337. 
puerperal,  (see  fever  parturient). 
Fischer,  Ferdinand,  established  the  family 
of  Merinos,  now  termed  Silesian  m 
the  United  States,  39. 

Fischer  Louis,  son  of  preceding,  continues 
the  flock,  39. 


446 


INDEX. 


Fischer,  Louis,  effect  of  his  cross  between 
the  Negretti  and  Infantado,  128, 129. 

Fleece,  proper  characteristics  of  in  a  Me- 
rino, 71,  72. 

Fleischmann,  Charles  L.,  his  drawing  of  a 

Saxon  ram,  26. 

his  statements  about  German  cross- 
bred sheep,  127. 

his  drawings  of  marking  instruments, 
184. 

Fodder  for  sheep,  value  of  different,  233- 

Folds,  or  wrinkles,  proper  amount  in  the 

skin  of  the  Merino,  70,  71. 
Forshey,  Caleb  G.,  on  the  climatology  of  Guillaum 

Texas,  428  et  seq.  G  ~ 

Foster,  William,  first  introduced  Merinos  Q 

into  United  States,  22. 
Foot -Rot,  (see  Hoof -Hot.) 
Fouls,  356. 
Fractures,  254. 


Grove,  Henry  D.,  his  account  of  importa- 
tions of  Saxon  sheep,  25. 
weight  of  fleeces  of  his  Saxon  flock, 

25  note, 
his  account  of  origin  of  the  "  little 

eared  "  sheep,  104. 
Grognier,  Prof.,  his   account  of  French 

sheep  dogs,  401. 
Grub  in  the  head,  273-277. 
Guillaume  inoculates  for  small-pox,  349. 
Gullet,  obstructions  of,  292,  293. 
um  on  wool  —  (see  Yolk.) 


Gad  -  fly  of  the  sheep,  cut  of,  274. 

cut  of  Larvae  of,  274. 

their  effect  on  sheep,  (see  Grub  in  the 

Head.) 
Garget,  157. 

Gayot,  inoculates  for  small -pox,  350. 
Gasparin,  cited  in  regard  to  sheep  diseases, 


Gaudeloupe  Merino,  14. 

Geddes,  James,  cut  of  his  Silesian  Merino 

ram  "Carl,"  38. 
cut  of  his  improved  wool  -  press,  174. 

Geddes,  Hon.  George,  experiments  in  feed- 
ing beets  to  sheep,  243. 

Germany,  Breeders  of,  at  World's  Fair, 
438,  439. 

Gestation,  period  of  in  the  ewe,  207. 

Gilbert,  his  description  of  the  origin  of 
"     ~      '    nillel  "     *    '" 


the  Rambouillet  flock,  19. 
Girard,  inoculates  for  small -pox,  349. 
Goitre,  congenital,  152,  154. 
Gold  Drop,  Mr.  Hammond's  ram,  pedigree 

of,  121,  122. 
Goodale,  8.  L.,  his  work  on  the  principles 

of  breeding,  114  note,  123. 
Gossip,   George  H.  and  Brother,  import 

Lincoln  sheep  into  the  U.  States,  50. 
Gragnier  inoculates  for  small  pox,  349. 
Grasses,  most  valuable  ones  for  sheep,  233,  H 


Gravel,  355. 

Grease  in  wool — (see  Yolk.) 

Greaves,  Mr.  W.,  cited  in  regard  to  sheep 

diseases,  305. 

Greer,  W.  F.,  in  regard  to  hoof-rot,  371. 
Grennel,  James  S.,  his  report  on  sheep 
husbandry    to    the    Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Agriculture,  51. 
his  account  of  New  Oxfordshire 

51. 
his  statement  of  comparative  waste  in 

cooking  beef  and  mutton,  83. 
his    statement   of  increase  of 
bought  in   Boston  market  betwee 
1839  and  1859,  84. 
his  account  of  sheep  poisons 


Grinnel,  J.  B.,  his  statement  of  cost  of  get- 
ting wool  and  other  products  to  mar- 


ket from  Iowa,  251  note. 

prairie  f 
260. 


his  article  on  prairie  sheep  husbandry, 


Hammond,  Edwin,  commences  his   flock 
with  Infantado  or  Atwood  sheep,  29, 

the  great  improver  of  the  Infantados, 

present  character  of  his  flock,  29,  30. 

his   ram   Sweepstakes  —  (the   frontis- 
piece of  this  volume,)  29. 

length  of  Sweepstakes'  wool,  76. 

pedigree  of  Sweepstakes,  121. 

description  of  Sweepstakes,  413. 
the  points  which  Mr.  H.  has  bred 
for,  30. 

the    extent   of  his  in  -  and  -  in  breed- 
ing, 30,  120. 

pedigrees  of  his  leading  stock  rams 
and  ewes,  14,  122. 

in  -  and  -  in  breeding  a  lever  of  his  suc- 
cess, 122. 
plan  of  his  sheep  establishment,  218. 

description  of  his  leading  animals,  and 

course  of  breeding,  412-416. 
Hampshire  Downs  described  by  Professor 
Wilson,  59,  60. 

Mr.  Spooner's  account  of  their  origin 

and  blood,  60,  61. 

Handling  Sheep— (see  Catching  and  Hand- 
Harrison,  Dr.,  on  symptoms  of  rot,  372. 
Head,  grub  in,  273-277- 

swelled,  268. 


:rding,  capacity  for  in  different  breeds 
of  sh 


iheep,  89. 

Hereditary  Diseases,  379,  380. 
Hogg,  James,  cited  in  regard  to  diseases  of 

sheep,  268,  278,  291,  312,  364. 
Hoof-Rot,  356-371,  380. 
Hoofs,  shortening  of  the,  168,  169. 

cut  of  toe-nippers,  169. 
Hoove,  299-301. 

[lorns  on  sheep,  shortening,  etc.,  189. 
sheep,  Howard,    Charles,    describes    origin    of 

Shropshire  Downs,  63.  64. 
Howard,  Sanford,  imports  Cheviot  sheep, 

sheep  Huard  inoculates  for  small-pox,  349. 


Humphreys,  David,  imports  Merinos  into 
the  United  States, 


ates,  23. 
breeds  in-and-in,  120. 


IKDEX.  447 

rICkh0nt9flocksSof  Spain^Te."169  **  *°  ****'*'  -John -H:'  "s. statement  of  the 


prese:      r , 

"  Hunger-Rot,"  how  produced,  203,  204. 
Hydatid  on  the  brain,  277-279,  380. 
Hyde,  Professor,  his  dissections  of  sheep 


In-and-in  breeding  —  (see  breeding  in-and 

Ignis  Sacer,  344. 

Illinois,  sheep  husbandry  in,  248,  et  seq. 

Infantado  Merinos  in  Spain,  14. 

the  improved  Infantados  of  the  United 

States,  28,  et  seq. 
closely  bred  in-and-in  in  the  United 

States.  120. 
one  of  the  families  on  which  the  Amer 

ican  Silesian  are  based,  129. 
leading  animals  of  the  improved  fam-  Lan 

ily,  412-116. 

Inflammation  of  the  eye,  272. 
of  the  brain,  281. 
of  cellular  tissue  under  the  tongue, 


(see  Blain.) 

of  coats  of  intestines,  306. 

of  the  bowels,  311. 

of  the  lungs,  325. 

of  the  bronchial  tubes,  326. 

of  the  udder,  157,  330. 

of  the  bladder,  337. 
Injections,  150. 

Inoculation  for  small-pox,  349,  et  seq. 
Iowa,  starting  a  aheep  establishment  in, 

427, 428. 
International  Exhibition  at  Hamburg,  438. 

triumph  of  American  Merinos  at,  438, 

439. 
Inverted  womb,  how  treated,  145. 


Jarvis,  William,  imports  Merinos  into  the 
United  States,  23,  24. 

crosses  them  with  the  Saxons,  24. 

breeds  back,   but  crosses  his  Merino 
families,  24. 

weight  of  his  fleeces  and  prices  of  his 
wool,  24. 

his  Merinos  established  as  a  family,  27. 

his  sheep  described,  27. 

effect  of  his  crossing  different  fami- 
lies, 128. 

his  remedy  for  hoof-rot,  363. 

his  family  crossed  with  the  Improved 

Paulars,  417,  418. 
John's-wort  —  (see  St.  John's-wort.) 


Kendall,  George  Wilkins,  the  wintering  of 

his  sheep  in  1860,  89. 
his  successful  cross  between  Merinos 

and  Mexican  sheep,  126  note, 
mean  temperature  near  his  residence, 

249  note, 
his  account  of  Mexican  sheep  dogs, 

404. 


8tSJ»MiF*  """* by  doss  iu 


La  Clavelee  —  (see  small-pox.) 
Lambs,  management  and  diseases  of  in 
spnng  — (see  Spring  Management.) 


importance  of  fall  shelter  for,  201. 
Lambing,  proper  time  for,  142. 
proper  place  for,  143. 
mechanical  assistance  in,  144. 
administering   cordials,   etc.,  during, 

Lameness   from   traveling  —  (see   Travel 
Sore.)  . 

Langlois  inoculates  for  small-pox,  349. 
Lasteyrie,  his  description  of  the  Merino 

families,  14. 
his  account  of  the  weight  of  French 

Merino  fleeces,  19. 
Lax,  Mr.,  imports  Leicester  sheep  into  the 

United  States,  44. 
Leicester  sheep,  43. 

probably  introduced  into  United  States 

by  Gen.  Washington,  44. 
imported  by  Mr.  Lax,  44. 
imported  by  Capt.  Beanes,  44. 
cut  of  Messrs.  Campbell  &  Brodie's 

ram,  45. 

cut  of  one  of  their  ewes,  47. 
Prof.  Wilson's  description  of  the  Lei- 

cesters,  45-47. 
their  origin,  45. 
Mr.  Bakewell  selected  from  different 

families,  46. 

he  then  bred  in -and -in,  46. 
not  so  hardy  as  the  other  large  breeds, 

their  early  maturity,  46. 

now  improved  by  a  dip  of  Cotswold 

blood,  47,  133. 
Lieonesa,  the  best  Spanish  families  of  the 

Merino,  so  called,  14. 
uewis,  Dr.,  statement  regarding  Spanish 

sheep  dogs ,  399. 

incolnshire    sheep   imported    into    the 

United  States  by  Leonard  D.  Clift,  50. 

imported  by  Geo.  H.  Gossip  &  Brother, 

50. 

character  of  the  imported  sheep,  50. 
Lips,  swelled,  271. 
*  'vermore,  George,  table  of  wool  prices 

furnished  by  him,  92-94. 
Livingston,  Robert  R.,  states  weight  of 

Spanish  fleeces,  16. 

imports  Merinos  into  United  States,  22. 
character  of  their  descendants,  23. 
weight  of  his  Merino  fleeces,  23. 
cited  in  regard  to  diseases,  340,  341. 
on  proportion  of  wool  to  surface,  433. 
Locked -jaw,  281,  282. 
Longevity  of  different  breeds,  113. 
Loveland,  R.  A.,  his  account  of  starting 
a  sheep  establishment  in  the  new 
Western  States,  427,  42&. 


448 


Lyman.  J.  H.,  his   account  of  Mexican 
sheep  dogs,  401-404. 

M 

Madness— (see  Rabies.) 

Maggots  on  sheep,  how  destroyed,  189, 190. 

Management  of  sheep  in  spring,  139. 

catching  and  handling,  139-141. 

tagging,  141,  142. 

burs  in  pastures  to  be  eradicated,  142. 

lambing,  142,  143. 

proper  place  for  lambing,  143, 144. 

mechanical  assistance  in  lambing,  144, 
145. 

inverted  womb,  how  treated,  145, 146. 

management  of  new-born  lambs,  146. 

artificial  feeding  of  lambs,  146-148. 

chilled  lambs,  148, 149. 

constipation  or  costiveness  of  lambs 
how  treated,  149, 150. 

cutting  teeth,  150. 

pinning,  how  treated,  151. 

diarrhea   or   purging  of  lambs,  how 
treated.  151. 

congenital  goitre,  or  swelled  neck.  152- 

imperfectly  developed  lambs,  154, 155 
rheumatism  in  lambs.  155. 156. 


Management  of  sheep  in  summer,  163-197. 
cut  of  ears  tattooed.  184. 
cut  of  copper  ear  marks,  185. 
storms  after  shearing,  186. 
sun-scald,  186. 

ticks,  how  destroyed,  187-189. 
cut  of  dipping  box,  187. 
shortening  horns,  etc.,  189. 
maggots,  189, 190. 
confining  rams,  190, 191. 
training  rams,  191. 
fences,  care  of,  192. 
salt  necessary  for  sheep,  192. 
tar,  sulphur,  alum,  etc.,  for  sheep,  193. 
water  in  pastures,  194. 
shade  in  pastures,  195. 
housing  sheep  in  summer,  195. 
pampering  sheep,  1%,  197. 
Management  of  sheep  in  the  fall,  197-210. 
weaning  and  fall  feeding  lambs,  197- 

201. 

sheltering  lambs  in  fall,  201. 
fall  feeding   and  sheltering  breeding 

ewes,  202-205. 

selecting  ewes  for  the  ram,  205,  206. 
coupling.  206,  207. 
period  of  gestation,  207. 
management  of  rams  during  coupling, 

207,  209. 
dividing  flocks  for  winter,  209,  210. 


treatment  of  ewe  after  lambing,  156,, 

157.  'Management  of  sheep  in  winter,  210-247. 

closed  teats,  157.  I        winter  shelter,  211. 

inflamed  udder,  157. 
drying  off  ewes,  158. 


disowning  lambs,  158,  159. 
pens,  159. 
foster  lambs,  159,  160. 
docking  lambs,  160,  161. 
castration  of  lambs,  161. 
Management  of  sheep  in  summer,  163-197. 
modes  of  washing  sheep,  163,  164. 
utility  of  washing  sheep,  163,  168. 
shortening  the  hoof,  168,  169. 
cut  of  toe-nippers,  169. 
time  between  washing  and  shearing, 

170. 

shearing,  170-172. 

stubble  shearing  and  trimming,  172. 
shearing   lambs   and   shearing   sheep 

semi-annually,  172. 
doing  up  wool,  173-175. 
cut  of  folding  table,  173. 
cut  of  fleece  ready  for  press,  173. 
cut  of  fleece  in  press,  174. 

at  of  wool-press,  174. 

storing  wool,  176. 

place  for  selling  wool,  177. 

wool  depots  and  commission  stores, 

177. 

sacking  wool,  177. 
drafting  and  selection  of  flock,  179. 
registration,  180. 
marking  and  numbering,  182-186. 
Von  Thaer's  mode  of,  183. 
German  mode  of  tattooing,  183. 
a  third  mode  of  marking,  184. 
a  fourth  mode  of  marking,  185. 
cut  of  instruments  for  tattooing,  184. 


frauds  in  doing  up  wool,  175. 


temporary  sheds,  211. 

cut  of  shed  of  poles,  211. 

clumps  of  trees  and  stalls,  212. 

hay  barns  with  open  sheds,  212. 

sheep  barns  or  stables,  214,  219. 

cut  of  sheep  barn  and  yards,  217. 

cut  of  a  sheep  establishment,  218. 

cleaning  out  stables  in  winter,  219. 

yards,  how  arranged,  etc.,  220. 

littering  yards,  220. 

confining  sheep  in  yards  and  to  dry 

feed,  221-228. 
hay  racks,  229. 
cut  of  slatted  box  rack,  229. 
cut  of  wall  rack  and  trough,  230. 
cut   of  end   view  of  wall   rack   and 

trough,  231. 

water  for  sheep  in  winter,  232. 
amount  of  food  consumed  by  sheep  in 

winter.  233. 

value  of  different  fodders,  233,  243. 
nutritive  equivalents,  234. 
table  of  nutritive  equivalents,  235. 
proportion  in  which   different  nutri- 
ment   increases   live   weight,  wool 

and  tallow,  236,  238. 
cost   and    economy   of    the   different 

kinds  of,  238,  et  seq. 
experiments  in  feeding,  239-242. 
mixed  feeds,  243-245. 
fattening  sheep  in  winter,  245,  246. 
regularity  in  feeding,  246,  247. 
Salt  in  winter,  247. 
Management  of  Sheep  on  Prairies— (see 

Prairie  Sheep  Husbandry.) 
Markets,  influence  of,  in  determining  the 

selection  of  a  breed,  82. 


449 


Marking  and  numbering  sheep,  differen 

modes  of,  183-186. 
Marshall,  Gen.  O.  F.,  his  mode  of  salting 

sheep  in  winter,  247. 
Marshes,  access  to  not  dangerous  to  sheep 

in  Northern  States,  88,— (see  Salt 

Marshes.) 

Mauchamp  Merinos  in  France,  104. 
Meat  and  Wool,  proportion  of,   betwe 

sheep  of  different  ages   and   sex 

433  et  seq. 
Medicines,  mode  of  introducing  into  the 

stomach  of  sheep,  299. 
explanation  of  medical  terms  used,  343. 

list  of  medicines  used  in  diseases  ol 


Merino,  American,  introduced  into  United 

States,  22. 

little  noticed  before  1807,  24. 
prices  of  wool  from  1807  to  1824,  24. 
prices  of  sheep  from  1807  to  1815,  24. 
circumstances  affecting  prices  of  wo 

24. 
established   as    a  variety  in  United 

States,  27. 
the  mixed  Leonese  or  Jarvis  family 

27,28. 

the  Infantado  or  Atwood  family,  28. 
Mr.    Hammond,    founder  of  the   im 

proved  Infantados,  29,  30. 
the  improved  Paular  or  Eich  family. 

30-33. 

other  American  Merino  families,  33. 
prices  of,  in  winter  of  1862-63,  69  note, 
proper  form  and  size  of,  69. 
the  different   families  should  not  be 

merged,  69,  70, 
proper  qualities  of  skin  of,  70. 
proper  amount  of  folds  or  wrinkles,  70. 
characteristics   to   be   sought   in  the 

fleece,  71,  72. 
spotted   and  black   Merinos,  etc.,  72 

note, 
the  most  profitable  quality  of  wool  and 

breed  of  sheep  to  propagate,  72,  73. 
evenness  of  the  fleece,  73. 
trueness  and  soundness  of  wool,  74. 
pliancy  and  softness  of  wool,  74. 
style  of  wool,  75. 
length  of  wool,  75,  76. 
endures  extremes  of  weather  better 

than  any  other  valuable  breed,  86. 
is  a  better  working  sheep  than  the 

English,  87. 

effect  of  abundant  food  on,  88. 
will  not  endure  wet  soils,  88, 
the  great  capacity  of,  for  herding,  89. 
average  production  of  wool  per  head 

in  large  flocks,  98. 
annual  value  of  manure  of,  99. 
its  manure  far  more  valuable  than  that 

of  the  horse  or  cow,  99  note, 
annual  value  of  lambs,  99. 
comparative   profits    of,    in   different 

parts  of  the  United  States,  99. 
full  bloods  as  cheaply  raised  as  grades, 

profits  of  growing  oa  lands  worth  $50 
per  acre,  100. 


Merino,  American,  breeding  in-and-in  of 
the  improved  Infantados,  120. 

pedigrees  of  celebrated  improved  In- 
fantados, 121,  122. 

origin  of  the  improved  Paulars,  128 
note. 

effect  of  crossing  American  Merinos 
with  coarse  breeds  — (see  Cross- 
Breeding.) 

effect  of  crossing  different  families  of 
Merino3-(see  Cross-Breeding.) 

origin  of  improved  Infantados,  412- 

leading   early  animals   of  Mr.   Ham- 
mond's flock,  412-416. 
origin  of  improved  Panlars,  416-418. 
leading  early  animals  of  the  family, 

victorious   at  World's  Fair  at  Ham- 
burg, 438. 
Merino,  French,  origin  of,  18, 19. 

stock  from  which  the  RambouiUet 
flock  sprung,  19. 

weight  of  fleece  given  by  Lasteyrie, 
etc.,  19,  20. 

general  description  of,  by  Trimmer,  in 
1827,  19. 

introduced  into  the  United  States  by 
D.  C.  Collins,  35. 

A.  B.  Allen,  description  of  them,  35. 

imported  by  John  A.  Taintor,  36. 

weight  of  fleeces  of  this  family,  given 
by  J.  D.  Patterson,  36. 

character  of  the  variety,  36,  37. 

crossed  with  American  Merinos,  129. 
Merino,  Saxon,  origin  of,  20. 

management  of.  in  Germany,  20. 

its  characteristics  of  carcass  and  fleece, 
20. 

introduced  into  United  States  in  1824, 
25. 

circumstances  affecting  its  success  in 
United  States,  25,  26. 

supercedes  the  Spanish,  and  in  turn 
superceded  by  them,  25. 

cut  of  Von  Thaer's  Saxon  ram.  26- 
Merino,    Silesian,    introduced    into    the 
United  States,  39. 

description  of  them  by  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain, 39-42. 

cut  of  a  group  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
ewes,  41. 

have  been  closely  bred  in-and-in,  120. 

effect  of  the  original  cross  from  which 

the  family  was  established,  128,  129. 
Merino,  Spanish,  origin  of,  13,  125  note. 

provincial  varieties  of,  in  Spain,  13. 

cabanas,  or  families  of,  in  Spain,  13, 14. 

migrations  of,  in  Spain,  13. 

general  treatment  of,  in  Spain,  and 
effects,  13,  14. 

its  wool,  character  and  color,  15, 16. 

its  wool,  compared  with  that  of  Ameri- 
can Merino,  15. 

fineness  and  felting  properties  of  its 
wool,  16. 

cut  illustrating  appearance  of  wool,  16. 

best  families  of,  lost  to  Spain,  16, 17. 

the  character  of  the  present  flocks  of 
Spain,  17,  la 


450 


INDEX. 


Merino,  Spanish,  the  earlier  families  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  by  dif- 
ferent persons,  22,  23. 
black  ones  imported,  23. 
the  different  families  bred  in-and-in, 
119,  120. 

Messenger,     Thos.,    imports    Hampshire 
Downs  into  the  United  States,   61. 

Miguel  inoculates  for  small  pox,  350. 

Miller,  George,  imports  Shropshires  into 
Canada  West,  65. 

Mississippi,  sheep  husbandry  in,  248  et  seq. 

Mixed  feeds  for  sheep,  243-245. 

Morrell,  L.  A.,  author  of  American  Shep- 
herd, 269. 

cited  in  regard  to  sheep  diseases,  209, 
301,  811. 

Myrtle  &  Ackerson,  length  of  their  Me 
rino  wool,  76. 


N 


Nankin  sheep  in  the  United  States,  54. 
Native  sheep  of  the  United  States,  43. 
Neck,  swellings  of,  152,  154,  380. 
Needham,  Col.  Daniel,  attends  World's  Fair  poi 

as  Commissioner  of  Vermont,  438. 
challenges  the  breeders  of  Europe,  438. 
Negretti  Merinos,  14, 129. 

weight  of  fleeces  of  flock  of  King  of 

England,  16. 
Nelson,  Capt.  Allison,  his  acconnt  of  Mex 

ican  sheep  dogs,  405. 
New  Oxfordshire  sheep  imported  into  the 

United  States,  51. 
described  by  L.  Smith,  a  breeder  of 

them,  51. 

Nomadic  shepherds  on  the  prairies,  250. 
Numann,  Prof.  A.,  on  treatment  of  small 

pox,  348,  349. 
Nutritive  equivalents  in  sheep  feed,  334 

et  seq. 
table  of  nutritive  equivalents,  5 


Parturient  fever,  831-337. 
'atterson,  John  D.,  describes  French  Me- 
rinos, 36. 
Paular  Merinos,  14. 

improved  in  United  States,  32,  33, 119. 
Pawlett,  T.  E.,  his  essay  on  management 

of  sheep,  199. 

his  views  on  fall  feeding  of  lambs,  199. 
his    experiments    in   winter    feeding, 

418-425. 

Pea-haulm  as  sheep  feed,  235,  245. 
r'edigree,  mode  of  keeping,  121. 
Persian  sheep  in  United  States,  54. 
"'eters,  Theodore  O.,  opens  a  Wool  Depot 

in  1847, 177. 
his  letter  in  regard  to  sheep  diseases, 

262. 

his  account  of  sheep  dogs,  407,  409. 
'etri,  his  measurements,  etc.,  of  Spanish 

sheep,  14. 
ining,  312. 
Pinning,  151. 

of  young  lambs,  how  treated,  151. 
Pleurisy,  326,  327. 
Plenritis,  326,  327. 
Pneumonia,  325,  379. 
Poisons,  301,  302. 
Porter,  Commodore,  imports  Broad-Tailed 

sheep  into  United  States,  53. 
Powell,    John    Hare,     breeds     Tunisian 

Mountain  sheep,  53. 
imports    South    Downs    into   United 

States,  57. 

his  acconnt  of  Spanish  sheep  dogs,  400. 
Prairie  Sheep  Husbandry,  248-260. 

.rative  climate  of  Prairie  States, 


0 


Ohio,  destruction  of  sheep  in,  by  dogs,  393 

396. 

Oil  in  wool— (see  Yolk.) 
Old  Kobinson  Ram,  his  history  and  quali 

ties,  113. 

his  pedigree,  128  note, 
his  pedigree  and  qualities,  416-418. 
Opthalmia,  272,  379. 
Orton,  Mr.,  his  theory  of  breeding,  107  e 

seq. 

Otter  sheep,  43. 
Oxfordshire    Downs,  described    by    Mr 

Howard,  65. 

introduced  into  United  States,  66. 
description  of  Mr.  Fay's  sheep,  66,  67. 


Paget,   Mr.,   his    account  of  Hungarian 


Pampering  sheep,  effects  of,  196,  197. 


'  great  advantages  for  wool  growing  in, 
249. 

nomadic  shepherds  in,  250. 

acclimation  of  sheep  in,  250. 

profits  of  wool  growing  in,  over  East- 
ern States,  251. 

wool  the  most  profitable  staple  in,  251 
and  note. 

management  of  sheep  in  summer  in,  252 

lambing  in  prairie  flocks,  252,  253. 

folds  and  dogs,  253. 

stables,  253. 

herding,  254. 

washing,  254. 

storing  and  selling  wool,  254. 

ticks  on  sheep,  255. 

prairie  diseases,  255,  256. 

feeding  salt,  256. 

weaning  lambs,  256. 

prairie  management  in  winter,  256. 

winter  feed,  258,  259. 

sheds  or  stables,  259. 

water,  260. 

location  of  sheep  establishment,  260. 
Pregnancy,  proper  treatment  during,  221- 

228,  336. 

Price,  Mr.,  cited  in  regard  to  sheep  dis- 
eases, 262. 

Puerperal  Fever— (see  Parturient  Fever.) 
Pulse,  its  frequency  in  healthy  sheep,  314. 

where  it  is  felt,  314. 
Purging— (see  Diarrhea,  Dysentery.) 


INDEX. 


451 


Rabies,  283,  290. 

Racks  for  feeding  sheep,  299-231. 

cut  of  slatted  box  rack,  229. 

cut  of  wall  racks,  230. 

cut  of  end  view  of  same,  231. 
Ram,  influence  of,  in  breeding,  108-115. 

oftenest  gives  the  form  to  progeny,  109 

points  to  be  regarded  in,  111,  112. 

capacity  of,  to  procreate,  113,  209. 

proper  size  of,  114. 

horns  of,  require  attention,  189. 

confinement  of,  190. 

training  of,  191. 

treatment  of,  when  vicious,  191. 

selecting  ewes  for,  205. 

modes  of  coupling,  206,  207. 


during  couPlinS>  207-  Saxto 
causes  which  sometimes  render  them 

unsure  stock-getters,  207  and  note. 
when  they  require  mechanical  assist 

ance,  207  note. 
preparation  of,  for    coupling  season 

feed  inclosures,  etc.,  208. 
Reaumur's    experiments,    showing    how 
feeds  increase  animal  products,  236, 

Red  Water,  304. 
Registration  of  sheep,  180-182. 

form  of  a  register,  181. 
Regularity  in  feeding,  importance  of,  246, 

247. 
Remelee,  Loyal    C.,  crosses    the   Paular 

and  Infantado  sheep,  128  note. 
his  connection  with  the  origin  of  the 

improved  Paular,  417. 
Rhcumalism,  155,  156,  379. 
in  lambs,  155,  156. 


Rich,  Charles,  origin  of  his  Paular  flock  o 

Merinos,  30-33. 
John  T.  succeeds  to  the  flock  of  his 

father,  31. 

Messrs.  John  T.  and  Virtnlan,  succeed 
to  the  flock  of  John  T.  Rich,  Sen.,  31, 

the  course  of  breeding  and  character  of 

the  Rich  flock,  32,  33,   119. 
cut  of  a  ewe  bred  by  the  Messrs,  Rich, 

effect  of  a  dip  of  other  blood  on  the 

flock,  128  and  note. 
Rickets,  the  380. 
Rives,    William   C.,    imports    Shropshire 

sheep  into  United  States,  66- 
Robinson,  Erastus,  breeds  the  "  Old  Rob- 
inson Ram,"  128  note, 
originates  the  "  Robinson  Sheep  "  of 

Vermont,  128  note, 
his  connection  with  the  origin  of  the 

improved  Panlars,  416,  418. 
Robinson  Ram,  the  old,  his  pedigree,  416- 

418. 
Roots,  value  of,  for  fattening  sheep,  418,  el 

Rot,  the?  372-378. 


Rotch,  Francis,  Ms  flock  of  early  American 

Merinos,  33. 
cut  of  one  of  his  ewes,  illustrating 

those  early  Merinos,  34. 
imports  South  Downs  into  the  United 

States,  57. 
his  account  of  a  Spanish  Sheep  Dog, 


Sacking  wool,  177. 

Salt  marshes  healthy  for  sheep,  88. 

Salt  necessary  to  sheep  in  summer,  192. 

necessary  in  winter,  247. 
Sanford,  William  R,  his  account  of  tho 

present  Merinos  in  Spain,  18. 
his  remedy  for  stretches,  310. 
his  purchases  of  sheep,  412,  414. 
n,  Nelson  A.,  his  remedy  for  stretches, 

Scab,  the,  338-343. 

cut  of  the  acarus,  339. 

erysipelatous,  344. 
Scotch  Black -faced  sheep— (see  Black  - 

Scotch  sheep  ) 
Scours  — (see  Diarrhea.) 
Scrofula,  378,  380. 

Seaman,  Isaac,  his  prize  essay  on  parturi- 
ent fever,  331,  335. 

Selection— (see  Drafting  and  Selection.) 
Shade  in  pastures  of  much  utility,  212. 


stubble  shearing  and  trimming,  172. 

shearing    lambs  and   shearing    sheep 

semi-annually,  172. 
Sheds  temporary  and  permanent,  for  sheep, 

211-214. 

Sheep,  the  most  profitable  animals  to  de- 
pasture our  cheap  lands,  96. 

necessary  to  good  farming  on  grain 
farms,  96. 

more  profitable  than  dairy  cows  in  por- 
tions of  New  York,  97. 

the  best  cleaners  of  new  lands,  97. 

best  adapted  to  the  pecuniary  means 
of  a  portion  of  our  rural  population, 
97. 

their  management  simple  and  easily 
learned,  97. 

they  never  die  in  debt  to  man,  97. 

catching  and  handling,  mode  of,  139- 

turning  out  to  grass,  141. 
taking,  how  performed,  141. 
cut  illustrative  of  tagging,  141. 
necessity   of    eradicating   burs   from 

pastures,  142. 
lambing  time,  place  for  and  assistance 

in,  142-144. 

spring  management  of,  139-162. 
summer  management  of,  163-197. 
administering   medicines  to  when  in 

health,  193. 

housing  of  in  summer,  195. 
pampering  of,  196. 
fall  management  of,  198-210. 
former  mode  of  fall  feeding,  202,  203. 


452 


INDEX. 


Sheep,  dividing  flocks  for  winter,  209. 

its  want  of  providence  in  protecting 

its  young,  213  and  note. 
winter  management  of,  211-247. 
confinement  to  yards  and  dry  feed,  221- 

228. 

consumption  of  food  by,  in  winter,  233. 
comparative  value  of  different  fodders 

for,  233-245,  418-425. 
the  fattening  of  in  winter,  245,  246. 
management  of,  on  the  prairies  —  (see  So 

Prairie  Sheep  Husbandry.) 
their  ready  acclimation  on  the  prairies, 

250. 

their  non-deterioration  on  prairies,  251. 
diseases  of—  (see  Diseases  of  Sheep.) 
diseases  of,  comparatively  few  in  the 

United  States,  261,  262. 
diseases  of  a  low  type  in  the  United 

States,  2(52,263. 

anatomy—  (see  Anatomy  of  Sheep.) 
longevity  of,  268. 
mode  of  administering  medicines  to, 

299. 

medicines  used  in  diseases  of,  384-392. 
destruction  by  dogs,  393-396. 
amount  of  food  consumed  by  418  etseq. 
Mr.  Pawlet's  experiments  in  fattening, 

418-425. 

number  of  in  United  States;  426. 

proportion  of  wool  to  meat  in,  433. 

Sheep  Husbandry  on  the  Prairies  —  (see 

Prairie  Sheep  Husbandry.) 
Shelters  for  sheep,  211,  219. 
Shropshire  Downs,  described  by  Professor 

Wilson,  61-63. 
Mr.  Spooner's  account  of  their  origin, 

63. 
Mr.  Howard  describes  their  origin  and 

character,  63,  64. 
cut  of  Judge  Chaffee's  Shropshire  ram 

Lion,  62. 
cut  of  Jud?e  Chaffee's  Shropshire  ewe 

Nancy,  65. 
Judge    ChafTee's    description    of    his 

sheep,  65. 

Sibbald,  W.  C.,  on  parturient  fever.  337. 
Silesian  Merinos—  (see  Merinos  Silesian.) 
Simonds,  Prof.,  his  remedy  for  scab,  343. 
Skin,  proper  qualities  of,  in  the  Merino,  70 

diseases  of,  unnamed  ones,  344t  345. 
Small-pox,  345,  353. 

its  introduction   into  America  to  be 

guarded  against,  351,  352. 
Smith,  Robert,  his  prize  essay  on  Manage- 

ment of  sheep,  198. 
his  views   in  respect  to  fall 

lambs,  198,  199. 
his  experiments  in  feeding  sheep, 

262. 
his  remedy  for  diarrhea  and  dysentery 

308,309. 
his  remedy  for  scab,  342,  343. 


Soils,  effect  of  low,  flat,  moist  and  very  rich 

soils  on  sheep,  88. 
effect  of  light,  sandy  soils,  89. 
kind  of,  adapted  to  Merino  and  Down 

sheep,  89. 
Sore  face,  269-271. 
Sotham,  William  H.,  his  account  of  Mr. 

Dunn's  wethers,  44. 
imports  Cotswold  sheep  in  1840  with 

Mr.  Corning,  48. 
th  Downs,  described  by  Professor  Wil- 

son, 55-57. 
imported  into  the  United   States  by 

Mr.  Powell,  57. 
imported  by  Rotch,  57. 
imported  by  Mr.  Thome,  of  New  York, 

Mr.    Alexander,  of  Kentucky,    and 

Mr.  Taylor,  of  New  Jersey,  58. 
Mr.  Thome  describes  his  mode  of  man- 


his remedy  for  hoof  -rot,  364,  365. 
Smith's  Island  sheep,  43. 
Soils  to  be  regarded  in  selecting  a  breed  of 

sheep,  88. 
.  the  loog-wooled  sheep  preferable  on  Sweet,  H 

wet  soils,  88. 
the  Merino  cannot  endure  wet  soils, 


aging  them,  58,  59. 

f  Mr.  Th 
56- 


cut  of 


,     . 
ome's  ram  Archbishop, 


cut  of  two  of  his  ewes,  57: 

annual  value  of  manure  in  England, 

Spooner',  William,  describes  the  Cotswold 

sheep,  49. 
describes  the  improved  Cheviots,  52, 

53. 

describes  origin  and  blood  of  Hamp- 
shire Downs,  60,  61. 
his  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Shrop- 
shire sheep,  63. 
his   estimate   of   the  value  of  sheep 

manure,  98,  99. 
his  theory  of  hereditary  transmission, 

107. 

cited  in  regard  to  diseases  of  sheep, 
277,  280,  281,  300,  302,  304,  307,  311, 
312;  326,  329,  330,  342,  347,  S64,  370, 
372,  378,  381,  382,  387,  390. 
Sprains,  382. 

Spring  management  of  sheep,  —  (see  Man- 
agement of  sheep  in  spring. ) 
Stables  for  sheep,  —  (see  Barns.) 
Stells  for  sheep,  212. 
Stevenson,  Mr.,  cited  in  regard  to  diseases 

of  sheep,  344. 

Stickney,  Tyler,  his  connection  with,  the 
improved  Paulars,  128  note,  417, 418. 
St.  John's-Wort  injurious  to  sheep,  269- 

271. 

popular  opinions  respecting,  270. 
Stone,  Frederick  William,  of  Canada  West, 
a  distinguished  breeder  of  Cotswold 
heep,  48,  49. 

after  shearing,  effect  on  sheep,  186. 
Strains,  —  (see  Bruises  and  Strains.) 
Stretches,  310—  (see  Colic.) 
Straw,  as  sheep  leed,  235,  236,  245. 
Summer   management   of    sheep,  —  (see 

Management  of  sheep  in  summer.) 
Sun-Scald,  how  produced,  186. 
Swamps,  effect  of  on  sheep,  —  (see  Marsh- 
es.) 

Sweepstakes,  Mr.  Hammond's  ram, —  (see 
Hammond,  Edwin.) 
H.  D.  L.,  on  comparative  weight  of 
ool  and  bodies  of  sheep,  433. 
elled  Head,  368. 


feeding  Storms  aft 


453 


Swelled  Lips,  271. 
Swelled  Neck,  152, 154,  380. 


Tagging,  how  performed,  141. 

cut,  illustrative  of,  141. 
Taintor,  John  A.,  his  account  of  preser 
Merinos  of  Spain,  17. 


imports  French  Merinos  into  United 

States,  36. 

description  of  his  Merinos,  36. 
Tariffs  of  the  United  States,  effects  of  dif- 
ferent ones  on  production,  price,  etc., 
of  wool,  25,  26 
those  in  force  from  1824  to  1861,  93-94 
Teats,  closed  ones,  how  opened,  157. 
Teeth,  cutting  of  the,  150. 
described,  266. 

the  most  reliable  test  of  age,  266,  267. 
to  be  extracted  sometimes,  267. 
Tessier,  cited  in  regard  to  sheep  diseases 

238,  318. 

Tetanus,  281,  282. 
Texas,  adaptation  of  to  wool  growing,  248 

et  seq. 

climate  of,  248,  249. 
mean  temperature  at  New  Braunfels, 


Udder,  inflamed,  157,  330. 
opening  closed  teats,  157. 


t,  Vaccination  for  small-pox,  350. 
Valois  inoculates  for  small-pox,  349. 
Variola  Ovina-(see  Small  Pox!) 
Vegetation,  kind  of,  required  by  different 

breeds  of  sheep,  86,  87. 
Vermont,  Merino  sheep  breeders  of,  27-30. 
Von  Thaer,  Albert,  cut  of  his  Saxon  ram, 


i  at  Austin,  249. 


mean  temperature  at 

climate  of,  428,  et  seq. 

northers  of,  429,  430. 

seasons  and  crops,  and  their  vicissi 

tudes,  431,  432. 

Thomiere,  inoculates  for  small-pox,  350. 
Thorne,    Samuel,    imports    South  Dowt 

sheep,  58. 
describes  his  mode  of  managing  them, 

his  crosses  to  procure  lambs  for  the 

butcher,  134,  135  note, 
his  account  of  parturient  fever  in  his 

flock,  334,  335. 
Ticks,  effects  of  on  sheep,  187. 

how  exterminated  from  flocks,  187-189 
cut  of  dipping  box,  187. 
Toe-nippers,  cut  of,  169. 
Torry,  Dr.,  his  account  of  St.  John's- Wort 

Travel-sore,  355. 

Treatment  of  ewe  after  lambing,  156, 157. 

Trees  in  pastures,  212. 

Trimmer,  Mr.,  his  description  of  French 

Merinos  in  1827,  19. 
his  description  of  Spanish  sheep  dogs 

399,  400 
Tunisian  Mountain  sheep  introduced  into 

Pennsylvania,  53. 
bred  and  commended  by  John  Hare 

Powell,  53. 

Turnips  as  sheep  feed,  221,  235,  239-243. 
"  21  per  cent.,"  the  ram  so  called,  15. 
length  of  his  wool,  76. 
his  qualities  as  a  sire,  109. 
remarkable  cross  between   him    an 

Saxon  ewes,  130,  and  note, 
his  pedigree,  415. 


his  mode  of  numbering  sheep,  183. 

W 

Walker,   Mr.,   his   theory   of  hereditary 

transmission,  107  et  seq. 
Walz  M.,  his  description  of  scab,  388. 
Washing  sheep,  163,  164. 

its  utility  considered,  164-168. 
Water  for  sheep,  its  utility  in  summer,  194. 

its  necessity  in  winter,  231. 

modes  of  watering  in  winter,  231-233. 
Water  in  pastures  highly  beneficial,  194. 

indispensable  in  winter,  232. 
Weaning  lambs,  age  and  mode,  198. 


ng  alter  weaning,  198- 
English  mode  of  fall-feeding,  198, 199. 
Webb,    Jonas,    his    success   in   breeding 

South  Down  Sheep,  57  et  seq. 
Wells,  Thomas,  describes    symptoms    of 

small-pox,  347. 
White,  Henry  G.,  imports  Cotswold  Sheep 

into  United  States,  49. 
cut  of  his  Cotswold  ram  Pilgrim,  48. 
cut  of  his  Cotswold  ewe  Lady  Gay,  50. 
an  account  of  his  sheep,  49. 
Wilcox,  Asahel  F.,  pedigree  of  his  "  Thou- 
sand Dollar  Ram,1'  415. 
Wild-fire,  344. 
Wilson,  Professor  John,  his  description  of 

Leicester  sheep,  45-17. 
his  description  of  South  Down  Sheep, 

55. 
his    description   of    the    Hampshire 

Downs,  59,  60,  61,  63. 
Womb,  inversion  of,  145,  330. 
Wool,  characteristics  of  Spanish,  15. 16. 
fineness  and  felting  property  of  Span- 
ish, 16. 

felting  property  of  Saxon,  16. 
characteristics  of  Saxon  fleeces,  20. 
proper  degree  of  fineness  of  in  the 

American  Merino,  72,  73. 
that  of  the  Merino  sometimes  black,  72 

note. 

evenness  of,  the  term  defined,  73. 
trueness  and  soundness  of,  74. 
pliancy  and  softness  of,  74. 
style  of,  75. 
length  of,  75. 
yolk  in  (see  Yolk.) 
oil,  grease,  and  gum  in,  (see  Yolk.) 
prices  of  in  United  States  from  1800  to 
1861,  91-94. 


454 


INDEX. 


Wool,  table  of  average  quarterly  prices 

from  1834  to  1861,  93-94. 
prices  medium  have  never  sunk  below 

cost  of  production,  94. 
prices  have  been  generally  remunera- 

annual  exports  and  imports  of  from  Wright 
1840  to  1861,  95,  96. 

the  domestic  supply  has  never  met  the 
demand,  96. 

cost  of  producing  in  New  York  and 
New  England,  97. 

cost  of  producing  in   the  South  and  Wright,  G 
South-west,  98. 

cost  of  producing  in  the  Western  and 
North-western  States,  98. 

cost  of  producing  in  intermediate  situ- 
ations, 98. 


Wounds,  lacerated  and  contused  -wounds 

381. 

punctured  wounds,  381. 
dog  bites,  381. 
poisoned  wounds,  381. 
Wright,  Loyal  C.,  his  ram,  113. 
Wright,  M.  W.  C.,  first  crosses  the  Paular 
and  Infantado    Sheep  in  Vermont, 
138  note, 
originates  the  Panlar  and  Infantado 

cross,  416. 
his  statements,  418. 

ov.,  of  Indiana,  at  World's  Fair, 

Wrinkles",  (see  Folds.) 


average    production  of  per  head  by  Y: 

Merinos  in  large  flocks,  98. 
comparative   profit   of   producing   i: 
different  parts  of  the  United  States, 
99. 
profits  of  producing  on  land  worth  $50  Yolk 

per  acre,  100. 

washing  of  on  the  back,  163, 164. 
shearing,  mode  of,  170-172. 
doing  up,  mode  of,  173-175. 
frauds  in  doing  up,  175. 
storing  wool,  176. 
place  lor  selling  wool,  177. 
wool  depots  and  commission  stores 

177. 

sacking  wool,  177. 
cost  of  getting  to  market,  251. 
product  of,  in   the  United  States  in 

1860,  426. 
proportion  to  meat  in  sheep  of  differen 

ages,  sexes  and  sizes,  433  et  seq. 
Woolens,  exports   and   imports  of,  from 

1840  to  1861,  95. 
Wooster,  Abel  J.,  describes  the  "  Woost 

Ram,"  113  note. 

Wooster  Kam  described,  113  and  note. 
Worms,  312. 
Wounds,  (see  Diseases  and  Wounds.) 


rds  for  sheep  (see  Barns.) 

size,  situation  of,  etc.,  220. 

littering  yards,  220. 

confining  sheep  to  them  in  winter,  221 
et  seq.  . 
described,  77. 

chemical  analysis  of,  77. 

uses  of,  in  wool,  77. 

proper  amount  and  consistency  of, 
78,  79. 

proper  color  of,  80,  81. 

artificial  imitation  of  its  color  exter- 
nally, 81. 

artificial  propagation  and  preservation 

of  in  fleece,  81. 

Youatt,  William,  discovers  conformation 
of  wool,  16. 

his  testimony  in  favor  of  pure  blood, 
131  note. 

in  rccard  to  sagacity  and  affection  of 
sheep,  213. 

in  regard  to  defects  of  the  Merino,  223 
note. 

cited  in  regard  to  diseases  of  sheep, 
268,  374,  275,  278,  279,  380,  282,  283, 
291,  300,  301,  306,  309,  314,  315,  317, 
318,  326,  327,  329,  330,  336,  330,  340, 
342,  344,  345,  347,  350,  354,  356,  357, 
363,  364,  373,  385,  389. 


MANUAL  OF  FLAX  AND  HEMP  CULUTURE. 


JUST  PUBLISHED,   A  JVEW  EDITION  OF 

A  MANUAL  OF  FLAX  CULTURE  AND  MANUFACTURE:  embracing  Full 
Directions  for  Preparing  the  Ground,  Sowing  the  Seed,  Harvesting  the  Crop, 
Etc.  Also  comprising  an  Essay,  by  a  Western  Man,  on  HEMP  AND  FLAX  IN 
THE  WEST  :— Amount  Grown,  Modes  of  Culture,  Preparation  for  Market,  &c., 
&c.  With  Botanical  Descriptions  and  Illustrations. 

Tins  work  is  composed  of  Nine  Essays  from  the  pens  of  Practical 
and  Scientific  Men  who  are  well  advised  on  the  various  branches  of 
the  subject  (fiscussed.  It  comprises,  in  a  neat  and  compact  form,  a 
large  amount  of  valuable  information,  and  is  designed  to  enable  new 
beginners  to  cultivate  Flax  and  Hemp  successfully.  The  leading 
Essay  is  by  a  gentleman  who  has  had  over  thirty  years  experience 
in  Flax  Growing,  and  thoroughly  understands  the  whole  business. 

The  Manual  is  published  in  handsome  style,  pamphlet  form.  Price 
only  25  cents  —  for  which  a  copy  will  be  sent  to  any  point  reached 
by  the  United  States  or  Canada  mails.  Liberal  discount  to  Agents 
and  the  Trade.  Address 

D.    ».    T.    MOORE, 

September,  1863.  EDITOR  RURAL  NEW-YORKER,  ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 


osr  TXXJH  2r»miss. 

FLAX  AND  HEMP.— A  Manual  of  Flax  Culture  and  Manufacture,  embracing  full 
directions  for  preparing  the  ground,  sowing,  harvesting,  dressing,  and  manufacturing, 
with  the  process  of  making  flax  cotton,  and  also  an  essay  upon  hemp  culture,  has  been 
published  by  D.  D.  T.  MOORE,  editor  of  the  Rural  New-Yorker,  Rochester,  in  pam- 
phlet form  at  25  cents,  and  is  well  worthy  the  attention  of  all  who  are  embarking  in 
flax  culture. — New  York  Daily  Tribune. 

THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FLAX.— A  Manual  of  Flax  Culture  and  Manufacture,  has 
been  published  in  neat  pamphlet  form,  at  the  office  of  Moore's  Rural  New-  Yorker,  and 
is  on  sale  at  the  Bookstores  generally, — price  25  cents.  It  is  a  work  pretty  exhaustive 
on  the  subject.  The  production  of  flax  is  a  matter  of  increasing  importance,  and  our 
agricultural  friends  should  consult  the  new  Manual. —  Syracuse  Daily  Journal, 

MANUAL  OP  FLAX  CULTURE.—  *  *  *  Those  who  wish  to  know  all  about 
Flax  and  Hemp  Culture,  and  to  aid  in  killing  "  King  Cotton"  and  suspending  traitors 
should  remit  the  cost  of  the  Manual  — 25  cents  —to  D.  D.  T.  MOORE,  Rochester,  N. 
Y. — Rochester  Daily  Democrat  and  American, 

MANUAL  OF  FLAX  CULTURE.— We  have  received  from  the  publisher,  D.  D.  T. 
MOORE,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Rural  Manual,  No.  1,  being  a  collection  of  valuable  infor- 
mation on  the  culture  and  manufacture  of  Flax  and  Hemp ;  with  illustrations.  The 
wants  of  a  large  number  of  persons  who  are  experimenting  with  these  crops  for  the 
first  time  will  be  filled  with  this  book.  It  can  be  had  by  addressing  the  publisher, 
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able little  work  is  selling  rapidly  and  widely.  The  publisher  is  daily  receiving  orders 
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and  the  preparation  of  their  staples  for  market,  should  send  25  cents  to  D.  D.  T. 
MOORE,  Rochester,  for  his  Manual  on  the  subject. — Rochester  Daily  Union  <t  Adv. 

A  MANUAL  OF  FLAX  CULTURE. —  *  *  *  Our  farmers  have  had  their  attention 
frequently  called  this  season  to  the  importance  of  flax-growing,  and  will  probably  sow 
twice  or  three  times  the  usual  amount  of  seed.  But  many,  and  perhaps  most  of  them, 
are  ignorant  of  the  best  methods  of  culture,  the  improved  methods  of  preparing  the 
fiber,  etc.  They  will  find  just  the  information  they  need  in  Mr.  MOOSE'S  seasonable 
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